The Aftermath of COVID-19: Exploring the Long-Term Effects on Organ Systems.

BACKGROUND: Post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC) is a complicated disease that affects millions of people all over the world. Previous studies have shown that PASC impacts 10% of SARS-CoV-2 infected patients of which 50-70% are hospitalised. It has also been shown that 10-12% of those vaccinated against COVID-19 were affected by PASC and its complications. The severity and the later development of PASC symptoms are positively associated with the early intensity of the infection. RESULTS: The generated health complications caused by PASC involve a vast variety of organ systems. Patients affected by PASC have been diagnosed with neuropsychiatric and neurological symptoms. The cardiovascular system also has been involved and several diseases such as myocarditis, pericarditis, and coronary artery diseases were reported. Chronic hematological problems such as thrombotic endothelialitis and hypercoagulability were described as conditions that could increase the risk of clotting disorders and coagulopathy in PASC patients. Chest pain, breathlessness, and cough in PASC patients were associated with the respiratory system in long-COVID causing respiratory distress syndrome. The observed immune complications were notable, involving several diseases. The renal system also was impacted, which resulted in raising the risk of diseases such as thrombotic issues, fibrosis, and sepsis. Endocrine gland malfunction can lead to diabetes, thyroiditis, and male infertility. Symptoms such as diarrhea, nausea, loss of appetite, and taste were also among reported observations due to several gastrointestinal disorders. Skin abnormalities might be an indication of infection and long-term implications such as persistent cutaneous complaints linked to PASC. CONCLUSIONS: Long-COVID is a multidimensional syndrome with considerable public health implications, affecting several physiological systems and demanding thorough medical therapy, and more study to address its underlying causes and long-term effects is needed.

The effect of emotion recognition and mindfulness on depression symptoms: A case-control study.

Abnormalities in emotion recognition (ER) are frequently reported in depression, with lower recognition accuracy in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) when compared to healthy individuals. Mindfulness was found to directly impact the severity of depressive symptoms, by recognizing negative cognitions and dysfunctional reactions. The aims of this study were to compare ER and mindfulness levels between MDD patients and healthy controls (HCs), as well as to examine whether ER and mindfulness are related to symptom severity in MDD patients. Sixty-eight patients with MDD and 93 HCs participated in the study. A sociodemographic form, reading the mind in the eyes test (RMET), five facet mindfulness questionnaire-short form (FFMQ-S) and the Montgomery-Asberg depression scale (MADRS) were administered. Group comparison in ER and mindfulness was performed using the multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA). Bivariate correlations and hierarchical linear regression analyses were performed to assess the associations between depression severity, ER and mindfulness in the patient group. Higher level of mindfulness was found in HCs relative to MDD group, however, no ER difference was present between the groups. A positive association between depression severity and the non-reactivity facet of mindfulness was found. On the other hand, ER was not significantly associated with symptom severity among individuals with MDD. Non-reactivity, unlike other dimensions of mindfulness, seems to increase with the severity of depressive symptoms among MDD patients. A particular focus on this subdimension in mindfulness techniques may yield better outcomes in alleviation of depressive symptoms.

The role of metacognitions in cyberbullying and cybervictimization among adolescents diagnosed with major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders: A case-control study.

Cyberbullying is becoming increasingly widespread as individuals use technology more widely and frequently. Recent studies have shown a growing vulnerability for cyberbullying and cybervictimization, particularly in the adolescent population. We argue that dysfunctional metacognitions, which have been found to be prominent in various psychiatric disorders, may also play a role in predicting cyberbullying and cybervictimization over and above a variety of established factors including daily Internet use, social media use, depression and anxiety. For this purpose, we recruited 121 adolescents diagnosed with major depressive disorder (MDD) and 122 adolescents diagnosed with anxiety disorders (AD) from the child and adolescent psychiatric department of 'Çankiri State Hospital' along with age and gender matched healthy controls (n = 120). Participants completed the DSM-5 Depression and Anxiety Severity Scales, the Social Media Disorder Scale (SMDS), the Metacognitions Questionnaire for Children (MCQ-C) and the Revised Cyberbullying Inventory-II (RCBI-II). Cybervictimization scores were found to be higher in the MDD and AD groups when compared with healthy controls. Cyberbullying scores in the MDD group were higher than healthy controls. Additionally, the Superstition, Punishment and Responsibility subdimension of the MCQ-C was a significant predictor of cybervictimization in the AD group while controlling for daily Internet use, social media use and anxiety. However, metacognitions were not associated with cyberbullying in the MDD and AD groups, as well as with cybervictimization in the MDD group. We concluded that dysfunctional metacognitions may be a preventive therapeutic target in reducing the impact of cyberbullying in adolescents with AD.

The role of desire thinking in the problematic use of social networking sites among adults.

The problematic use of social networking sites (SNS) is associated with several psychiatric disorders. This behavior closely resembles addiction in terms of neurological basis and behavioral patterns. Nevertheless, successful intervention strategies and the etiology of problematic SNS use are not yet thoroughly investigated. We aimed to study whether desire thinking is associated with problematic SNS use among adults when controlling for some confounders, including boredom, affect, and impulsivity. With the help of convenience sampling, we enrolled 546 Turkish adults in this study to whom we administered a sociodemographic form, the Social Media Addiction Scale (SMAS), the Leisure Boredom Scale (LBS), the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11), and the Desire Thinking Questionnaire (DTQ). To explore the association between the variables, we performed Pearson correlational and hierarchical regression analyses. The results showed that higher scores on two sub-dimensions of desire thinking, namely verbal perseveration and imaginal prefiguration, were associated with higher scores on problematic SNS use after we controlled for boredom, affect, and impulsivity. This study demonstrates that desire thinking may play a role in problematic SNS use among adults. We recommend targeting desire thinking as a potential area in treatments which may help alleviate problematic SNS use.

Examining the roles of cognitive flexibility, emotion recognition, and metacognitions in adult Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder with predominantly inattentive presentation.

The evaluation of cognitive functions in Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is fundamental to improve the efficacy of therapeutic interventions. However, the role of specific higher-order cognitive functions in adult ADHD, including cognitive flexibility, emotion recognition, and metacognitions, remains unclear. Therefore, in the current study, we aimed to examine these three distinct higher-order cognitive functions among adult ADHD individuals. Forty patients with ADHD with predominantly inattentive presentation and 42 healthy controls participated in the study. The Adult Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder Scale (AADHDS), the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET), and the Metacognitions Questionnaire-30 (MCQ-30) were administered. Results indicated that patients with ADHD had worse metacognitions scores, in specific subdimensions, relative to healthy controls. However, cognitive flexibility and emotion recognition did not differ between the groups. Moreover, the cognitive confidence subdimension of the MCQ-30 was found to be sole significant predictor in the attention deficit subdimension of the AADHDS. Our findings suggest that lack of cognitive confidence may contribute to ADHD symptomatology despite regularly functioning cognitive flexibility and emotion recognition. Therefore, metacognitions could be a suitable target to alleviate the severity of ADHD symptoms.

The Combined Contribution of Fear and Perceived Danger of COVID-19 and Metacognitions to Anxiety Levels during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Despite a wide base of research suggesting a major role for dysfunctional metacognitions in contributing to anxiety, their role in explaining psychological distress in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic remains unclear. In this study we investigated whether metacognitions would predict anxiety, while controlling for fear and perceived danger of COVID-19. A total of 862 individuals were included in this study. Participants completed sociodemographic questions, emotional state questions relating to COVID-19, the Metacognitions Questionnaire-30, and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7. Results showed that both negative beliefs about thoughts concerning uncontrollability and danger, and cognitive self-consciousness were significant predictors of anxiety beyond the fear and perceived danger of COVID-19. Future studies involving clinical populations are needed to investigate the longer-term impact of metacognitions in the maintenance and exacerbation of anxiety associated with the fear and perceived danger of COVID-19.

Correction to: The Combined Contribution of Fear and Perceived Danger of COVID 19 and Metacognitions to Anxiety Levels during the COVID 19 Pandemic.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1007/s10942-021-00429-9.].

Genetic Architecture of Depression: Where Do We Stand Now?

The research of depression genetics has been occupied by historical candidate genes which were tested by candidate gene association studies. However, these studies were mostly not replicable. Thus, genetics of depression have remained elusive for a long time. As research moves from candidate gene association studies to GWAS, the hypothesis-free non-candidate gene association studies in genome-wide level, this trend will likely change. Despite the fact that the earlier GWAS of depression were not successful, the recent GWAS suggest robust findings for depression genetics. These altogether will catalyze a new wave of multidisciplinary research to pin down the neurobiology of depression.

The role of metacognitions and emotion recognition in problematic SNS use among adolescents.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Problematic social networking sites (SNS) use is associated with important psychological problems among adolescents. Nevertheless, research on the aetiology of problematic SNS use is limited. Our aim was to investigate the role of metacognitions and emotion recognition in predicting problematic SNS use during the late adolescence period. METHODS: Eight hundred and sixty-one high school students were recruited for the study. Participants completed the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), the Metacognitions Questionnaire for Children (MCQ-C), and the Children's Version of Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET). RESULTS: A stepwise multiple linear regression analysis showed that all subdimensions of metacognitions (positive meta-worry, negative meta-worry, superstition, punishment, and responsibility beliefs, and cognitive monitoring), but not emotion recognition, independently predicted the BSMAS total score controlling for daily SNS use. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that maladaptive metacognitions are associated, independently frequency of daily SNS use, to problematic SNS use among late adolescents. Interventions targeting dysfunctional metacognitions may aid adolescents who suffer from the detrimental effects of problematic SNS use.

Metacognitions and emotion recognition in Internet Gaming Disorder among adolescents.

Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) is associated with considerable psychological distress in adolescents. However, studies which strive to shed light on the developmental background of IGD are still sparse. We aimed to examine the role of metacognitions and emotion recognition in predicting IGD during the early adolescence period. Four hundred and seventy-seven secondary school students were recruited for the study. Participants completed the Internet Gaming Disorder Test (IGDT), the Metacognitions Questionnaire for Children (MCQ-C), and the Children's Version of Reading the Mind in the Eye Test (RMET). Correlation analyses indicated that three factors of the MCQ-C (positive meta-worry, negative meta-worry, and superstition, punishment, and responsibility) and its total score were positively correlated with the majority of factors of the IGDT. The negative factor of the RMET was positively correlated with the salience, tolerance, and relapse factors and total score of the IGDT. Daily internet use was positively correlated with all factors of the IGDT and its total score. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that daily internet use and metacognitions (in different combinations) were significant independent predictors of IGDT factors and its total score, and that the negative factor of the RMET was a significant independent predictor of the salience and tolerance factors of IGDT and its total score. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Associations between executive functions and problematic social networking sites use.

BACKGROUND: Research on problematic internet use has greatly increased over the last decade. Although there were many studies related to problematic social networking sites (SNS) use, there is limited empirical research yet focused on exploring the relationship between problematic SNS use and Executive Functions (EF). AIM: This study set out to determine whether problematic SNS use is associated with cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control aspects of EF. METHOD: A total of 284 individuals participated in the study. A sociodemographic data form, Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) were administered. RESULTS: Group comparisons revealed no difference in WCST performance between problematic and non-problematic SNS use groups. Categories achieved (WCST-CA) and perseverative errors (WCST-PE) subtests were correlated with "relapse" subtest and "total score" of BSMAS in problematic SNS use group. Regression analysis revealed that WCST-CA and WCST-PE were associated with "relapse" subtest of BSMAS in problematic SNS use group. CONCLUSION: Our findings yielded a possible association between EF and problematic SNS use. Enhancing cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control may be beneficial in mitigating problems related to relapse in excessive SNS use.

The problematic use of social networking sites associates with elevated symptoms in patients with major depressive disorder.

BACKGROUND: Although excessive use of social networking site (SNS) is related to undesired effects on healthy individual's psychological well-being, there is a huge gap in studies performed with individuals who suffer from various mental disorders. AIM: The main goal of this study is to examine the association between problematic utilization of SNSs and depressive symptoms across patients diagnosed with major depressive disorder (MDD). METHODS: 111 patients diagnosed with MDD (diagnoses confirmed via the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5-Clinician Version (SCID-5/CV)) and 108 healthy controls (HCs) were recruited for the study. Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) and Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) were administered by both MDD and HC groups. Group comparisons were estimated with multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) analyses. To identify the relationship between SNS addiction and depressive symptoms, the Pearson correlations were performed, and finally, we computed the multiple linear regression analyses to determine whether SNS addiction predicts depressive symptoms. RESULTS: The results revealed that MDD group is more addicted to SNS relative to HC. In addition, depressive symptoms were significantly predicted by 'relapse' subdimension and the overall score of SNS addiction in the MDD group. CONCLUSION: Our study illustrated the detrimental effects of excessive SNSs usage on depressive symptoms in MDD particularly for the individuals in 'relapse' state of SNS addiction. The mental health workers should consider the usage patterns of SNSs in patients diagnosed with MDD during their clinical observation and management.

The relationship between dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs and problematic social networking sites use.

Social networking sites (SNSs) enrol new subscribers each day. However, problematic SNS use has undesirable effects on psychological functioning. Therefore, it is important to identify the factors that contribute to the development of problematic SNS use. Very few studies have focused on revealing the underlying mechanisms of problematic SNS use. Although many past studies have examined the relationship between metacognitive beliefs and Internet addiction, the association between metacognitive beliefs and problematic SNS use has not been adequately explored. In this study, we aimed to explore the association between metacognitive beliefs and problematic SNS use among young adults. A total of 308 individuals participated in this study. A socio-demographic data form, the Metacognitions Questionnaire-30 (MCQ-30), and Social Media Addiction Scale (SMAS) were administered. Group comparisons were performed using multivariate analysis of covariance. Pearson's correlational and multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to examine the associations between metacognitive beliefs and problematic SNS use. The SNS addicts scored higher in all of the SMAS assessments. When compared to non-addicts, SNS addicts obtained higher scores on all the subtests of the SMAS and MCQ-30 except cognitive self-consciousness. The negative beliefs about the uncontrollability and danger of worry, cognitive confidence, and need for control thoughts were associated with SMAS mood modification, relapse and conflict subdimensions. Our findings revealed that dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs are related to problematic SNS use among young adults. These findings indicate that mental health workers should consider the modification of metacognitive beliefs in the treatment of problematic SNS use.

Associations between emotion recognition and social networking site addiction.

With the widespread use of the internet today, many studies have been conducted regarding the use of social networking sites (SNS). Despite the growing literature on the effects of SNS on human life, there are limited successful therapeutic interventions for SNS addiction. Our study aimed to elucidate the potential role of emotion recognition in the development of SNS addiction and to propose novel strategies for alleviating problems emerging from SNS addiction. A total of 337 individuals participated in the study. A sociodemographic data form, the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET), and the Social Media Addiction Scale (SMAS) were administered. The results revealed the presence of emotion recognition deficits among individuals with SNS addiction, relative to non-addicts. RMET positive and negative scores were associated with SNS addiction in a negative direction. Additionally, RMET negative scores predicted SNS addiction. Our findings indicate a possible link between SNS addiction and emotion recognition, which might serve as a crucial target in novel treatment strategies.

Development of Neuroimaging-Based Biomarkers in Psychiatry.

This chapter presents an overview of accumulating neuroimaging data with emphasis on translational potential. The subject will be described in the context of three disease states, i.e., schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder, and for three clinical goals, i.e., disease risk assessment, subtyping, and treatment decision.

The evaluation of metacognitive beliefs and emotion recognition in panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder: effects on symptoms and comparison with healthy control.

Background: The impairments in metacognitive functions and emotion recognition are considered as liable factors in anxiety disorders. Aims: The better understanding of these cognitive abilities might lead to develop more accurate treatment methods for patients who suffer from anxiety. Methods: Forty-four patients with panic disorder (PD), 37 individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and 44 healthy control (HC) were participated in our study. Metacognition questionnaire-30 (MCQ-30), Reading The Mind From The Eyes Test and symptom severity tests were administered. Results: Statistical analyses estimated the dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs and disrupted emotion recognition in patients relative to HC. The 'need to control thoughts' aspect of metacognitive beliefs was accounted for symptom severity in GAD. Improper metacognitive beliefs were significantly predicted the PD and GAD. In addition, impoverished emotion recognition predicted the GAD. Conclusions: Our study revealed the role of inconvenient metacognitive beliefs and distorted emotion recognition in PD and GAD. These findings might facilitate the treatment management in cognitive therapies of anxiety disorders via pointing out more reasonable targets across improper cognitive fields.

Assessing the relationship between attachment, parental attitude and plasma oxytocin in schizophrenia patients and their unaffected siblings.

BACKGROUND: It is widely acknowledged that schizophrenia patients tend to have insecure attachment styles and improper parenting. However, the biological processes related to these adversities remain unclear and that the disturbance in oxytocin system is considered as one of the strongest predictors of such adversities. METHODS: Thirty-four patients with schizophrenia and their unaffected thirty-four healthy siblings were recruited for the study and they were compared with thirty-one healthy controls. We examined attachment styles via Experience in Close Relationship-Revised Test and perceived parental attitudes with the My Memories of Upbringing-Short Version Test. In addition, we evaluated plasma oxytocin levels across groups. RESULTS: The patients with schizophrenia had lower plasma oxytocin levels and obtained higher levels for attachment anxiety and avoidance with more parental rejection and over protection. There was a significantly negative relationship between the levels of plasma oxytocin in blood and parental over protection in the healthy sibling and healthy control groups. In contrast, there was a significantly positive relationship between the levels of plasma oxytocin in blood and parental over protection in the schizophrenia group. Results of the regression analyses revealed that the plasma oxytocin levels and over protection were notable factors in discriminating the groups from each other. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggested that disturbance in oxytocin is associated with susceptibility to schizophrenia predisposition. In sum, therapeutic interventions that address oxytocin and over protection may influence the outcomes in this severe mental disorder.

Associations of oxytocin and vasopressin plasma levels with neurocognitive, social cognitive and meta cognitive function in schizophrenia.

Many with schizophrenia experiences deficits in social cognition, neurocognition and metacognition. Yet the biological mechanisms which may underpin these cognitive deficits are poorly understood. Two candidate causes of these deficits are disturbances in oxytocin (OT) and vasopressin (VP). To explore this we assessed plasma OT and VP in 34 schizophrenia patients and 31 healthy controls. We also concurrently assessed social cognition using the Reading the Mind from the Eyes test, neurocognition using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and metacognition using the Metacognitive Assessment Scale-Abbreviated. Group comparisons revealed lower plasma OT levels in the schizophrenia group. Plasma VP levels did not differ between groups. Correlations revealed that lower levels of OT were associated with poorer levels of metacognitive functioning in the schizophrenia group but not poorer social cognition or neurocognition. In a stepwise multiple regression, plasma OT level, neurocognition and social cognition contributed uniquely to the prediction of metacognition in the schizophrenia group. Results may suggest that disturbance in OT is linked with deficits in metacognition and may interact with other forms of cognitive deficits, interfering with the person's abilities to form a complex and integrated sense of self and others.