ApoB-containing lipoproteins regulate angiogenesis by modulating expression of VEGF receptor 1.

Despite the clear major contribution of hyperlipidemia to the prevalence of cardiovascular disease in the developed world, the direct effects of lipoproteins on endothelial cells have remained obscure and are under debate. Here we report a previously uncharacterized mechanism of vessel growth modulation by lipoprotein availability. Using a genetic screen for vascular defects in zebrafish, we initially identified a mutation, stalactite (stl), in the gene encoding microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (mtp), which is involved in the biosynthesis of apolipoprotein B (ApoB)-containing lipoproteins. By manipulating lipoprotein concentrations in zebrafish, we found that ApoB negatively regulates angiogenesis and that it is the ApoB protein particle, rather than lipid moieties within ApoB-containing lipoproteins, that is primarily responsible for this effect. Mechanistically, we identified downregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 (VEGFR1), which acts as a decoy receptor for VEGF, as a key mediator of the endothelial response to lipoproteins, and we observed VEGFR1 downregulation in hyperlipidemic mice. These findings may open new avenues for the treatment of lipoprotein-related vascular disorders.

The metalloproteinase inhibitor Reck is essential for zebrafish DRG development.

The neural crest is a migratory, multipotent cell lineage that contributes to myriad tissues, including sensory neurons and glia of the dorsal root ganglia (DRG). To identify genes affecting cell fate specification in neural crest, we performed a forward genetic screen for mutations causing DRG deficiencies in zebrafish. This screen yielded a mutant lacking all DRG, which we named sensory deprived (sdp). We identified a total of four alleles of sdp, all of which possess lesions in the gene coding for reversion-inducing cysteine-rich protein containing Kazal motifs (Reck). Reck is an inhibitor of metalloproteinases previously shown to regulate cell motility. We found reck function to be both necessary for DRG formation and sufficient to rescue the sdp phenotype. reck is expressed in neural crest cells and is required in a cell-autonomous fashion for appropriate sensory neuron formation. In the absence of reck function, sensory neuron precursors fail to migrate to the position of the DRG, suggesting that this molecule is crucial for proper migration and differentiation.

Specification of sensory neuron cell fate from the neural crest.

How distinct cell fates are generated from initially homogeneous cell populations is a driving question in developmental biology. The neural crest is one such cell population that is capable of producing an incredible array of derivatives. Cells as different in function and form as the pigment cells in the skin or the neurons and glia of the peripheral nervous system are all derived from neural crest. How do these cells choose to migrate along distinct routes, populate defined regions of the embryo and differentiate into specific cell types? This chapter focuses on the development of one particular neural crest derivative, sensory neurons, as a model for studying these questions of cell fate specification. In the head, sensory neurons reside in the trigeminal and epibranchial ganglia, while in the trunk they form the spinal or dorsal root ganglia (DRG). The development of the DRG will be the main focus of this review. The neurons and glia of the DRG derive from trunk neural crest cells that coalesce at the lateral edge of the spinal cord (Fig. 1). These neural crest cells migrate along the same routes as neural crest cells that populate the autonomic sympathetic ganglia located along the dorsal aorta. Somehow DRG precursors must make the decision to stop and adopt a sensory fate adjacent to the spinal cord rather than continuing on to become part of the autonomic ganglia. Moreover, once the DRG precursors aggregate in their final positions there are still a number of fate choices to be made. The mature DRG is composed of many neurons with different morphologies and distinct biochemical properties as well as glial cells that support these neurons.

FGF is essential for both condensation and mesenchymal-epithelial transition stages of pronephric kidney tubule development.

The pronephros is a transient embryonic kidney that is essential for the survival of aquatic larvae. It is also absolutely critical for adult kidney development, as the pronephric derivative the wolffian duct forms the ductal system of the adult kidney and also triggers the condensation of metanephric mesenchyme into the adult nephrons. While exploring Xenopus pronephric patterning, we observed that epidermally delivered hedgehog completely suppresses pronephric kidney tubule development but does not effect development of the pronephric glomus, the equivalent of the mammalian glomerulus or corpuscle. This effect is not mediated by apoptosis. Microarray analysis of microdissected primordia identified FGF8 as one of the potential mediators of hedgehog action. Further investigation demonstrated that SU5402-sensitive FGF signaling plays a critical role in the very earliest stages of pronephric tubule development. Modulation of FGF8 activity using a morpholino has a later effect that blocks condensation of pronephric mesenchyme into the pronephric tubule. Together, these data show that FGF signaling plays a critical role at two stages of embryonic kidney development, one in the condensation of the pronephric primordium from the intermediate mesoderm and a second in the later epithelialization of this mesenchyme into the pronephric nephron. The data also show that in Xenopus, development of the glomus/glomerulus can be uncoupled from nephron formation via ectopic hedgehog expression and provides an experimental avenue for investigating glomerulogenesis in the complete absence of tubules.

Hedgehog signaling is directly required for the development of zebrafish dorsal root ganglia neurons.

Hedgehog (Hh) signal transduction is directly required in zebrafish DRG precursors for proper development of DRG neurons. Zebrafish mutations in the Hh signaling pathway result in the absence of DRG neurons and the loss of expression of neurogenin1 (ngn1), a gene required for determination of DRG precursors. Cell transplantation experiments demonstrate that Hh acts directly on DRG neuron precursors. Blocking Hh pathway activation at later stages of embryogenesis with the steroidal alkaloid, cyclopamine, further reveals that the requirement for a Hh signal response in DRG precursors correlates with the onset of ngn1 expression. These results suggest that Hh signaling may normally promote DRG development by regulating expression of ngn1 in DRG precursors.

Neurogenin1 defines zebrafish cranial sensory ganglia precursors.

Cells delaminate from epithelial placodes to form sensory ganglia in the vertebrate head. We describe the formation of cranial neurogenic placodes in the zebrafish, Danio rerio, using bHLH transcription factors as molecular markers. A single neurogenin gene, neurogenin1 (ngn1), is required for the development of all zebrafish cranial ganglia, which contrasts with other described vertebrates. Expression of ngn1 delineates zebrafish ganglionic placodes, including trigeminal, lateral line, and epibranchial placodes. In addition, ngn1 is expressed in a subset of cells within the otic vesicle that will delaminate to form the octaval (statoacoustic) ganglion. The trigeminal placode is the first to differentiate, and forms just lateral and adjacent to the neural crest. Expression of ngn1 is transient and prefigures expression of a related bHLH transcription factor, neuroD. Interfering with ngn1 function using a specific antisense morpholino oligonucleotide blocks differentiation of all cranial ganglia but not associated glial cells. Lateral line sensory neuromasts develop independently of ngn1 function, suggesting that two derivatives of lateral line placodes, ganglia and migrating primordia, are under separate genetic control.