Amyloid beta 42 peptide (Abeta42)-lowering compounds directly bind to Abeta and interfere with amyloid precursor protein (APP) transmembrane dimerization.

Following ectodomain shedding by beta-secretase, successive proteolytic cleavages within the transmembrane sequence (TMS) of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) catalyzed by gamma-secretase result in the release of amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptides of variable length. Abeta peptides with 42 amino acids appear to be the key pathogenic species in Alzheimer's disease, as they are believed to initiate neuronal degeneration. Sulindac sulfide, which is known as a potent gamma-secretase modulator (GSM), selectively reduces Abeta42 production in favor of shorter Abeta species, such as Abeta38. By studying APP-TMS dimerization we previously showed that an attenuated interaction similarly decreased Abeta42 levels and concomitantly increased Abeta38 levels. However, the precise molecular mechanism by which GSMs modulate Abeta production is still unclear. In this study, using a reporter gene-based dimerization assay, we found that APP-TMS dimers are destabilized by sulindac sulfide and related Abeta42-lowering compounds in a concentration-dependent manner. By surface plasmon resonance analysis and NMR spectroscopy, we show that sulindac sulfide and novel sulindac-derived compounds directly bind to the Abeta sequence. Strikingly, the attenuated APP-TMS interaction by GSMs correlated strongly with Abeta42-lowering activity and binding strength to the Abeta sequence. Molecular docking analyses suggest that certain GSMs bind to the GxxxG dimerization motif in the APP-TMS. We conclude that these GSMs decrease Abeta42 levels by modulating APP-TMS interactions. This effect specifically emphasizes the importance of the dimeric APP-TMS as a promising drug target in Alzheimer's disease.

Ionic interactions promote transmembrane helix-helix association depending on sequence context.

Folding and oligomerization of integral membrane proteins frequently depend on specific interactions of transmembrane helices. Interacting amino acids of helix-helix interfaces may form complex motifs and exert different types of molecular forces. Here, a set of strongly self-interacting transmembrane domains (TMDs), as isolated from a combinatorial library, was found to contain basic and acidic residues, in combination with polar nonionizable amino acids and C-terminal GxxxG motifs. Mutational analyses of selected sequences and reconstruction of high-affinity interfaces confirmed the cooperation of these residues in homotypic interactions. Probing heterotypic interaction indicated the presence of interhelical charge-charge interactions. Furthermore, simple motifs of an ionizable residue and GxxxG are significantly overrepresented in natural TMDs, and a specific combination of these motifs exhibits high-affinity heterotypic interaction. We conclude that intramembrane charge-charge interactions depend on sequence context. Moreover, they appear important for homotypic and heterotypic interactions of numerous natural TMDs.

Complex patterns of histidine, hydroxylated amino acids and the GxxxG motif mediate high-affinity transmembrane domain interactions.

Specific interactions of transmembrane helices play a pivotal role in the folding and oligomerization of integral membrane proteins. The helix-helix interfaces frequently depend on specific amino acid patterns. In this study, a heptad repeat pattern was randomized with all naturally occurring amino acids to uncover novel sequence motifs promoting transmembrane domain interactions. Self-interacting transmembrane domains were selected from the resulting combinatorial library by means of the ToxR/POSSYCCAT system. A comparison of the amino acid composition of high-and low-affinity sequences revealed that high-affinity transmembrane domains exhibit position-specific enrichment of histidine. Further, sequences containing His preferentially display Gly, Ser, and/or Thr residues at flanking positions and frequently contain a C-terminal GxxxG motif. Mutational analysis of selected sequences confirmed the importance of these residues in homotypic interaction. Probing heterotypic interaction indicated that His interacts in trans with hydroxylated residues. Reconstruction of minimal interaction motifs within the context of an oligo-Leu sequence confirmed that His is part of a hydrogen bonded cluster that is brought into register by the GxxxG motif. Notably, a similar motif contributes to self-interaction of the BNIP3 transmembrane domain.

Phenylalanine promotes interaction of transmembrane domains via GxxxG motifs.

Interactions of transmembrane helices play a crucial role in the folding and oligomerisation of integral membrane proteins. In order to uncover novel sequence motifs mediating these interactions, we randomised one face of a transmembrane helix with a set of non-polar or moderately polar amino acids. Those sequences capable of self-interaction upon integration into bacterial inner membranes were selected by means of the ToxR/POSSYCCAT system. A comparison between low/medium-affinity and high-affinity sequences reveals that high-affinity sequences are strongly enriched in phenylalanine residues that are frequently observed at the -3 position of GxxxG motifs, thus yielding FxxGxxxG motifs. Mutation of Phe or GxxxG in selected sequences significantly reduces self-interaction of the transmembrane domains without affecting their efficiency of membrane integration. Conversely, grafting FxxGxxxG onto unrelated transmembrane domains strongly enhances their interaction. Further, we find that FxxGxxxG is significantly over-represented in transmembrane domains of bitopic membrane proteins. The same motif contributes to self-interaction of the vesicular stomatitis virus G protein transmembrane domain. We conclude that Phe stabilises membrane-spanning GxxxG motifs. This is one example of how the role of certain side-chains in helix-helix interfaces is modulated by sequence context.

An extended ToxR POSSYCCAT system for positive and negative selection of self-interacting transmembrane domains.

Assay systems based on the ToxR protein are widely used to investigate interaction of transmembrane domains that come from natural proteins or are isolated from combinatorial libraries. The principle of this method is that self-interaction of any given transmembrane domain, which is expressed within a ToxR chimeric protein, drives ToxR-ToxR assembly in a bacterial inner membrane. In current versions of the system, ToxR-ToxR interaction drives transcription activation of the cholera toxin (ctx) promoter and thereby induces expression of downstream reporter genes in appropriately constructed bacterial strains. Here, we describe the application of other known ToxR-regulated promoters. We show that interacting transmembrane domains also promote ToxR-driven activation of the ompU promoter. Conversely, these interactions efficiently repress transcription from the constitutively active ompT promoter. We present novel Escherichia coli strains whose chromosomes harbor fusions of ompU or ompT promoters with different reporter genes. Depending on the used promoter, self-interaction of transmembrane domains induces or represses reporter enzyme expression in these cells. These strains extend current applications of the ToxR protein and may find use in mapping transmembrane helix-helix interfaces and selection of transmembrane domains with medium affinities.

Tryptophan supports interaction of transmembrane helices.

Interactions of transmembrane helices play an important role in folding and oligomerization of integral membrane proteins. The interfacial residues of these helices frequently correspond to heptad repeat motifs. In order to uncover novel mechanisms underlying these interactions, we randomised a heptad repeat pattern with a complete set of amino acids. Those sequences that were capable of high-affinity self-interaction upon integration into bacterial inner membranes were selected by means of the POSSYCCAT system. A comparison between selected and non-selected sequences reveals that high-affinity sequences were strongly enriched in tryptophan residues that accumulated at specific positions of the heptad motif. Mutation of Trp in selected clones significantly reduced self-interaction of the transmembrane segments without affecting their efficiency of membrane integration. Conversely, grafting Trp onto artificial transmembrane segments strongly enhanced their interaction. We conclude that tryptophan supports interaction of transmembrane segments.