Factors associated with daily use of benzodiazepines/tranquilizers and opioids among people who use drugs.

BACKGROUND: Co-use of benzodiazepines and opioids significantly increases fatal overdose risk, yet few studies have examined co-use of these drugs when obtained both with and without a prescription. We examined associations of daily co-use of prescribed benzodiazepines/tranquilizers (BZD/TRQ) and prescribed and nonprescribed opioids among people who use street opioids (PWUO). METHODS: PWUO (N = 417) were recruited from Baltimore City and neighboring Anne Arundel County, Maryland, and surveyed on sociodemographic characteristics, structural vulnerabilities, healthcare access and utilization, substance use, and overdose experiences. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with self-reported co-use. RESULTS: Participants were 46 years old on average, and predominantly Black (74%) males (62%). Daily co-use was reported by 22%. In multivariable analyses, odds of co-use were significantly higher among participants who did not have a high school degree/GED (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 1.71, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.02-2.88), endorsed receiving mental health treatment in the past 6 months (aOR: 2.13, 95% CI: 1.28-3.56), reported daily use of powdered cocaine (aOR: 3.57, 95% CI: 1.98-6.45), and synthetic cannabinoids (aOR: 3.11, 95% CI: 1.40-6.93). Odds of co-use were significantly lower among Black participants compared to white participants (aOR: 0.39, 95% CI: 0.19-0.82). CONCLUSIONS AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: Clinicians working with PWUO or who prescribe BZDs or opioids should screen patients who use cocaine or synthetic cannabinoids, have low level of educational attainment, or recently accessed mental health services, as these patients may be at higher risk for daily co-use of BZD/TRQ and opioids, and therefore lethal overdose.

High willingness to use overdose prevention sites among suburban people who use drugs who do not inject.

INTRODUCTION: Overdose prevention sites (OPS) are evidence-based interventions to improve public health, yet implementation has been limited in the USA due to a variety of legal impediments. Studies in various US settings have shown a high willingness to use OPS among urban and rural people who inject drugs, but data among people who use drugs (PWUD) via non-injection routes of administration in suburban areas are lacking. METHODS: We utilized cross-sectional data from a sample of suburban PWUD who have not injected drugs in the past 3 months (N = 126) in Anne Arundel County, Maryland. We assessed PWUDs' likelihood of using a hypothetical OPS and perceived potential barriers to accessing OPS. We tested for associations between sociodemographic characteristics, drug use, service access, and overdose experiences with willingness to utilize OPS. FINDINGS: Participants' median age was 42, and the majority were men (67%) and non-Hispanic Black (79%). Sixty-six percent reported willingness to use an OPS. Concerns about confidentiality (29%), arrest (20%), and transportation costs (22%) were the most anticipated barriers to using OPS. Men (75% vs 55%, p = 0.015), participants who used heroin (53% vs 32%, p = 0.017), and participants who used multiple overdose prevention behaviors (e.g., using fentanyl test strips) (36% vs 19%, p = 0.006) were more likely to report willingness to use OPS. CONCLUSION: Most suburban non-injecting PWUD in the sample were willing to use an OPS. OPS implementation strategies in suburban settings should be tailored to reach PWUD via non-injection routes of administration while meeting the unique needs of suburban contexts.

Selling sex in the context of substance use: social and structural drivers of transactional sex among men who use opioids in Maryland.

BACKGROUND: Transactional sex is an important driver of HIV risk among people who use drugs in the USA, but there is a dearth of research characterizing men's selling and trading of sex in the context of opioid use. To identify contextually specific factors associated with selling or trading sex in a US population of men who use drugs, we cross-sectionally examined social and structural correlates of transactional sex among men who use opioids (MWUO) in Anne Arundel County and Baltimore City, Maryland. METHODS: Between July 2018 and March 2020, we used targeted sampling to recruit men reporting past-month opioid use from 22 street-level urban and suburban recruitment zones. MWUO completed a 30-min self-administered interview eliciting substance use histories, experiences with hunger and homelessness, criminal justice interactions, and transactional sex involvement. We identified correlates of recent (past 3 months) transactional sex using multivariable log-binomial regression with cluster-robust standard errors. RESULTS: Among 422 MWUO (mean age 47.3 years, 73.4% non-Hispanic Black, 94.5% heterosexual), the prevalence of recent transactional sex was 10.7%. In multivariable analysis, younger age (adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] 0.98, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 0.97-0.99, p < 0.001), identifying as gay/bisexual (aPR = 5.30, 95% CI 3.81-7.37, p < 0.001), past-month food insecurity (aPR = 1.77, 95% CI 1.05-3.00, p = 0.032), and injection drug use in the past 3 months (aPR = 1.75, 95% CI 1.02-3.01, p = 0.043) emerged as statistically significant independent correlates of transactional sex. CONCLUSIONS: Synergistic sources of social and structural marginalization-from sexuality to hunger, homelessness, and injection drug use-are associated with transactional sex in this predominantly Black, heterosexual-identifying sample of MWUO. Efforts to mitigate physical and psychological harms associated with transactional sex encounters should consider the racialized dimensions and socio-structural drivers of transactional sex among MWUO.

Discordance Between Self-reported and Biologically Tested Exposure to Fentanyl Among People at Risk of Opioid Overdose.

Drug overdose remains a leading cause of death in the US, and the majority of opioid overdose fatalities involve fentanyl. This study aims to measure the degree of concordance between self-reported and biologically tested exposure to fentanyl. We conducted a cross-sectional analysis using survey and urinalysis data collected between 2019 and 2020 from Anne Arundel County, Maryland. Among urinalysis participants (n =113), 30% reported daily fentanyl use, and among this group, only 54% had a fentanyl-positive result. Cohen Kappa between self-reported and biologically detected fentanyl use was 0.26, indicating minimal agreement between the 2 markers. Limitations to interpreting self-reported and urinalysis data are discussed in this report.

HIV Risk Among Urban and Suburban People Who Inject Drugs: Elevated Risk Among Fentanyl and Cocaine Injectors in Maryland.

Drug overdose remains a leading cause of death in the US, with growing rates attributable to illicit fentanyl use. Recent HIV outbreaks among people who inject drugs (PWID) and service disruptions from COVID-19 have renewed concerns on HIV resurgence. We examined the relationship between fentanyl use and three injection-related HIV risk behaviors among PWID in Baltimore City (BC) and Anne Arundel Country (AAC), Maryland. PWID (N = 283) were recruited to the study through targeted sampling at street-based locations in BC and AAC from July 2018 to March 2020. Receptive syringe sharing (RSS) [adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 2.8, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.2-6.3] and daily injecting (AOR: 1.9, 95% CI: 1.0-3.6) were associated with injecting fentanyl and cocaine together. Fentanyl availability and COVID-19 bring new HIV prevention challenges, particularly among those who inject fentanyl with cocaine, highlighting the importance to expand and sustain harm reduction, prevention, and treatment services for PWID to reduce HIV and overdose burden.

Alternative use of buprenorphine among people who use opioids in three U.S. Cities.

Background: Buprenorphine is an effective treatment for opioid use disorder, yet some persons are concerned with its "alternative use" (i.e., any use unintended by the prescriber). There is limited evidence on the factors associated with alternative use of buprenorphine (AUB); in this study, we examined correlates of recent (past 6 months) AUB. Methods: Multivariable logistic regression was used to analyze survey data from a multi-site, cross-sectional study of people who use drugs (PWUD) (N = 334) in Baltimore, Maryland; Boston, Massachusetts; and Providence, Rhode Island. Results: One-fifth (20%) of the sample reported recent AUB. In adjusted analyses, significant negative correlates of AUB were female gender (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0.48, 95% confidence intervals [CI] 0.24-0.95), recent emergency room visit (aOR 0.45, 95% CI 0.23-0.89), and recent injection drug use (aOR 0.41, 95% CI 0.19-0.88). Significant positive correlates were alternative use of other prescription opioids (aOR 8.32, 95% CI 4.22-16.38), three or more overdoses in the past year (aOR 3.74, 95% CI 1.53-9.17), recent buprenorphine use as prescribed (aOR 2.50, 95% CI 1.12-5.55), and recent residential rehabilitation treatment (aOR 3.71, 95% CI 1.50-9.16). Conclusions: Structural and behavioral correlates of AUB may help identify PWUD at high risk of overdose with unmet treatment needs.

Identifying pathways to recent non-fatal overdose among people who use opioids non-medically: How do psychological pain and unmet mental health need contribute to overdose risk?

BACKGROUND: Significant associations exist between psychological pain, unmet mental health need, and frequency and severity of substance use among people who use drugs (PWUD), but no studies have analyzed the relationship of these variables to non-fatal overdose. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional survey of people who used opioids non-medically in Baltimore, Maryland (n = 563) as part of a broader harm reduction-focused evaluation (PROMOTE). The outcome was self-reported recent (past 6 months) non-fatal overdose; exposures of interest were recent self-reported unmet mental health need, experiencing daily "long-lasting psychological or mental pain" (vs. < daily), and daily multi-opioid use (vs. none/one opioid used). Path analysis was used to model direct relationships between these variables, personal characteristics (race, gender, experiencing homelessness, drug injection) and overdose. RESULTS: 30% of the sample had experienced a recent non-fatal overdose, 46% reported unmet mental health need, 21% reported daily psychological pain, and 62% used multiple types of opioids daily. After adjusting for covariates, daily multi-opioid use (aOR = 1.78, p = 0.03) and unmet mental health need (aOR = 2.05, p = 0.01) were associated with direct, significant increased risk of recent overdose. Significant pathways associated with increased odds of unmet mental health need included woman gender (aOR = 2.23, p = 0.003) and daily psychological pain (aOR = 4.14, p = 0.002). In turn, unmet mental health need associated was with greater odds of daily multi-opioid use (aOR = 1.57, p = 0.05). DISCUSSION: Unmet mental heath need and daily psychological pain are common experiences in this sample of PWUD. Unmet mental health need appears on several pathways to overdose and associated risk factors; improving access to mental healthcare for PWUD (particularly women) expressing need may be an important harm reduction measure.

Perceived vulnerability to overdose-related arrests among people who use drugs in Maryland.

BACKGROUND: People who use drugs (PWUD) must weigh complex legal scenarios when seeking help during overdose events. Good Samaritan laws (GSL) offer limited immunity for certain low-level drug crimes to encourage PWUD to call 911. Drug-induced homicide laws (DHL) allow for criminal prosecution of people delivering drugs that result in overdose death and may exert opposing effects on the decision-making process. We examined whether perceptions of these laws were related to overall perceived vulnerability to overdose-related arrests, which can impact help-seeking and overdose mortality. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study of PWUD (N = 173) in Anne Arundel County, Maryland and measured sociodemographic characteristics, structural vulnerabilities, and knowledge of GSL and DHL. Perceived vulnerability to overdose-related arrest was defined as self-reported concern arising from calling 911, receiving medical help, or supplying drugs in the event of an overdose. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify significant correlates of perceived vulnerability to overdose-related arrest. RESULTS: Most participants were aware of DHL (87%) and half were aware of GSL (53%). Forty-seven percent of PWUD expressed concern about arrest during or due to an overdose. After adjustment, positive correlates of perceived vulnerability to arrest were non-white race (aOR 2.0, 95% CI 1.5-2.5) and hearing of somebody charged with DHL (aOR 3.1, 95%CI 1.9-5.0), and negative correlates were history of drug treatment (aOR 0.6, 95%CI 0.4-1.0), receiving naloxone (aOR 0.6, 95% CI 0.4-1.0), and having made, sold or traded drugs in the past 3 months (aOR 0.4, 95% CI 0.2-0.9). CONCLUSIONS: We report persisting concern about arrest during overdose events among street-based PWUD facing a complicated landscape of legal protections and liabilities. Findings demonstrate clear racial disparities of concern outside an urban centre, where impacts of policing on health are less studied, and present evidence that DHL may compromise overdose prevention efforts. Changes to drug policy and enforcement including police nonattendance at overdose scenes may be necessary to promote help-seeking among PWUD and reduce overdose fatalities.

"I Know It Is Going to Ruin Their Life:" Fortune-Telling, Agency, and Harm Reduction in Narratives Concerning Injection Initiation Assistance.

BACKGROUND: Considering most people who inject drugs (PWID) received help with the first injection, understanding the perspective of potential 'initiators' is a priority to inform harm reduction interventions. This paper examines how PWID narrate their experiences with injection initiation and assistance from the lens of their lived experience and perceptions of harm reduction. METHODS: In-depth interviews were conducted with individuals who reported injection drug use and recent (past 30 days) opioid use in Baltimore (N = 19) and Anne Arundel County (N = 4), Maryland and analyzed using a narrative approach. RESULTS: Respondents cast initiation events as meaningful transitions to a life characterized by predictable harms, including homelessness, infections, and social stigma. Respondents used examples from their personal experience to explain experiences with initiation and assistance by strategically attributing personal agency and predicting specific injection-related harms for initiates. In their narratives, respondents balanced notions of individual agency with harm reduction intentions by distinguishing between two forms of harm: perceived inevitable distal harm caused by long-term injection (e.g. socioeconomic decline) and potentially avoidable proximal harm caused by risky injection practices (e.g. overdose, HIV). CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight opportunities for interventions targeting injection initiation events and support the implementation of safer injection training in interventions. This identity of the 'responsible drug user' could be leveraged to support employing peers to help mitigate harm among inexperienced PWID either through peer outreach or formal venues, such as overdose prevention sites.

Practical implications of naloxone knowledge among suburban people who use opioids.

BACKGROUND: Naloxone distribution programs have been a cornerstone of the public health response to the overdose crisis in the USA. Yet people who use opioids (PWUO) continue to face a number of barriers accessing naloxone, including not knowing where it is available. METHODS: We used data from 173 PWUO from Anne Arundel County, Maryland, which is located between Baltimore City and Washington, DC. We assessed the prevalence of recently (past 6 months) receiving naloxone and currently having naloxone, the type(s) of the naloxone kits received, and the perceived ease/difficultly of accessing naloxone. We also assessed participants knowledge of where naloxone was available in the community. RESULTS: One third (35.7%) of participants had recently received naloxone. Most who had received naloxone received two doses (72.1%), nasal naloxone (86.9%), and education about naloxone use (72.1%). Most currently had naloxone in their possession (either on their person or at home; 78.7%). One third (34.4%) believed naloxone was difficult to obtain in their community. Only half (56.7%) knew of multiple locations where they could get naloxone. The health department was the most commonly identified naloxone source (58.0%). Identifying multiple sources of naloxone was associated with being more likely to perceive that naloxone is easy to access. DISCUSSION: Our results suggest that additional public health efforts are needed to make PWUO aware of the range of sources of naloxone in their communities in order to ensure easy and continued naloxone access to PWUO.

Associations of cumulative violence and structural vulnerability with restless sleep among female sex workers in Baltimore, Maryland.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate correlates of restless sleep among street-based female sex workers (FSW) in the United States, an understudied population experiencing high rates of structural vulnerabilities (e.g., homelessness, food insecurity) and trauma. METHODS: Using data from a cohort of street-based cisgender FSW (n = 236; median age = 35 years, 68% non-Hispanic White), we examined cross-sectional associations of individual, interpersonal, and structural factors with frequent restless sleep over the past week (5-7 vs. <5 days). RESULTS: Participants reported a high prevalence of homelessness (62%), food insecurity (61%), daily heroin injection (53%), lifetime sexual or physical violence (81%), and frequent restless sleep (53%). Older age, food insecurity, poor self-rated health, and cumulative violence exposure were independently associated with frequent restless sleep. CONCLUSION: Frequent restless sleep was prevalent among FSW with higher odds among those experiencing intersecting vulnerabilities and multiple exposures to violence. Further research on sleep health in this population is needed to understand its role in health risks.

"We know the streets:" race, place, and the politics of harm reduction.

This paper explores how a peer-and street-based naloxone distribution program (Bmore POWER) reshapes narratives and practices around drug use and harm reduction in an urban context with an enduring opioid epidemic. Data collection included observations of Bmore POWER outreach events and interviews with peers. Bmore POWER members create a sense of community responsibility around overdose prevention and reconfigure overdose hotspots from places of ambivalence to places of grassroots action. It expands a harm reduction approach to Black communities that have not traditionally embraced it and that have been underserved by drug treatment programs. Policy makers should consider ways to use peers grounded in specific communities to expand other aspects of harm reduction, such as syringe and support services.

Agency in the fentanyl era: Exploring the utility of fentanyl test strips in an opaque drug market.

BACKGROUND: In Baltimore, the emergence of fentanyl and its analogues exacerbated an existing heroin crisis and increased uncertainty about drug composition and potency. In an effort to reduce overdoses, harm reduction organizations and health departments across the U.S. began distributing fentanyl test strips, a low barrier, inexpensive drug checking strategy. Studies show that people who use drugs (PWUD) frequently suspect that their drugs contain fentanyl and are interested in using fentanyl test strips to check their drugs; however, some people question their usefulness in regions where fentanyl presence is assumed. Understanding the utility of fentanyl test strips in fentanyl-saturated markets is a priority to best tailor interventions. METHODS: In-depth interviews (N = 20) were conducted with individuals who reported recent (past 30 days) opioid use in Baltimore, MD. RESULTS: Fentanyl was viewed as pervasive, dangerous, and difficult to avoid in the local drug supply. This dominant narrative characterized PWUD as disempowered by the heightened unpredictability of the drug market. While several strategies are used to navigate the drug market, respondents wanted more information about their drugs. In this context, fentanyl test strips were used in unique and unexpected ways to empower PWUD to be savvier market consumers, including avoiding fentanyl when there could be negative social or legal consequences, negotiating with dealers, and helping others in their social network navigate the opaque drug market. CONCLUSION: These findings add nuance and place fentanyl preference and use in the context of the drug market. When fentanyl presence is assumed, people used fentanyl test strips in unexpected ways to gain some control over their drug use. Novel uses for fentanyl test strips strengthen existing strategies used to navigate the drug market and mitigate overdose risk, and highlight their potential to quickly disseminate valuable information about the local drug supply.

The Unmet Need for Discussions Between Health Care Providers and Adolescents and Young Adults.

PURPOSE: The aims of the study were to identify factors related to (1) adolescents and young adults (AYA) desire to discuss health topics; (2) whether discussions occurred at their last medical visit; and (3) the gap (unmet need) between desire and actual discussion. METHODS: We used data from a nationally representative, cross-sectional online survey of AYA aged 13-26 years (n = 1,509) who had had a visit in the past 2 years. Bivariate analyses examined 11 topics. Multivariable regression identified health care factors and demographic factors related to unmet need across four salient topics (HIV/sexually transmitted infections, alcohol and drug use, tobacco, and contraception). RESULTS: Across 11 topics, unmet need averaged 28% and ranged as high as 60%; unmet need generally increased with AYA age. In multivariable analyses, ever having discussed confidentiality with a health care provider was associated with greater desire to discuss three of four salient topics, increased discussions (four of four topics), and reduced unmet need (two topics). Patient use of a clinical checklist/questionnaire at the last medical visit was associated with an increase in discussions (four topics) and reduced unmet need (four topics). Longer office visits were associated with an increase in discussions (three topics) and reduced unmet need (two topics). Older and minority youth had greater desire for discussions and unmet need. CONCLUSIONS: A considerable gap exists between young people's desire to discuss health topics with their health care providers and actual practice.