Radiolabeling of bionanomaterials with technetium 99m: current state and future prospects.

Radiolabeling of bionanomaterials with technetium-99m (99mTc) has become a promising approach in combining the benefits of nanotechnology and nuclear medicine for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. This review is intended to provide a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art of radiolabeling of bionanomaterials with 99mTc, highlighting the synthesis methods, labeling mechanisms, biological evaluation, physicochemical characterization and clinical applications of 99mTc-labeled bionanomaterials. Various types of nanomaterials are considered in the review, including lipid- and protein-based nanosystems, dendrimers and polymeric nanomaterials. Moreover, the review assesses the challenges presented by this emerging field, such as stability of the radiolabel, potential toxicity of the nanomaterials and regulatory aspects. Finally, promising future perspectives and areas of research development in 99mTc-labeled bionanomaterials are discussed.

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Tetraaryl-3H-Azepines: KOBut/DMSO-Catalyzed Assembly from Diaryldiynes and N-Benzylaldimines.

Di(het)aryldiynes smoothly react with N-benzylaldimines in a [4 + 3] cycloaddition manner under the action of the KOBut/DMSO system (60 °C, 30 min) to afford pharmaceutically relevant tetra(het)arylsubstituted 3H-azepines in up to 71% yield. The process involves the addition of azaallyl anions to one of the triple bonds of diynes followed by prototropic isomerization and cyclization of anionic intermediates with participation of the second triple bond. The cascade mechanism is consistent with quantum-chemical analysis (B2PLYP-D3/6-311+G**//B3LYP-D3/6-31+G* + PCM).

Functionalized 2,3'-Bipyrroles and Pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazoles from Acylethynylpyrroles and Tosylmethylisocyanide.

An efficient method for the synthesis of pharmaceutically prospective but still rare functionalized 2,3'-bipyrroles (in up to 80% yield) by the cycloaddition of easily available acylethynylpyrroles with tosylmethylisocyanide (TosMIC) has been developed. The reaction proceeds under reflux (1 h) in the KOH/THF system. In the t-BuONa/THF system, TosMIC acts in two directions: along with 2,3'-bipyrroles, the unexpected formation of pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazoles is also observed (products ratio~1:1).

Activation of Anthraquinone's Electrophilicity by Light for a Dynamic C-O Bond.

Coupling of photoswitching with dynamic covalent chemistry enables control of the formation and cleavage of covalent bonds by light irradiation. peri-Aryloxyanthraquinones feature an exclusive ability to switch electrophilicity by interconversion between para- and ana-quinone isomers, which was used for the first time for the implementation of a dynamic C-O bond. Photogenerated ana-isomers undergo a concerted oxa-Michael addition of phenols to give hitherto unknown 4-hydroxy-10,10-diaryloxyanthracen-9-ones. These species were found to be in equilibrium with the corresponding ana-quinones, thus forming a dynamic covalent system of a new type. Withdrawal of the colored ana-quinones from the equilibria by visible light irradiation resulted in two para-quinones with "locked" aryloxy groups.

Synthesis of Tetrazines from N-Allenylpyrrole-2-carbaldehydes and pH-Controlled Reversible Fragmentation.

A one-pot highly selective approach to the synthesis of hitherto unknown tetrahydropyrrolo[2',1':3,4]pyrazino[1,2-b]pyrrolo[2',1':3,4]pyrazino[1,2-e][1,2,4,5]tetrazine ensembles from simple and available N-allenylpyrrole-2-carbaldehydes and hydrazines has been developed. The reaction proceeds in a very facile manner and tolerates different substituents in both pyrroles and hydrazines. The novel class of organic compounds, tetrahydrodipyrrolodipyrazinotetrazines, proves to be promising pH-sensitive switchers to deliver N-aminopyrrolopyrazinium salts in acidic media and then again tetrahydrodipyrrolodipyrazinotetrazines in basic media. Both transformations give the products in quantitative yields.

2,3-Diarylmaleate salts as a versatile class of diarylethenes with a full spectrum of photoactivity in water.

There is incessant interest in the transfer of common chemical processes from organic solvents to water, which is vital for the development of bioinspired and green chemical technologies. Diarylethenes feature a rich photochemistry, including both irreversible and reversible reactions that are in demand in organic synthesis, materials chemistry, and photopharmacology. Herein, we introduce the first versatile class of diarylethenes, namely, potassium 2,3-diarylmaleates (DAMs), that show excellent solubility in water. DAMs obtained from highly available precursors feature a full spectrum of photoactivity in water and undergo irreversible reactions (oxidative cyclization or rearrangement) or reversible photocyclization (switching), depending on their structure. This finding paves a way towards wider application of diarylethenes in photopharmacology and bioinspired technologies that require aqueous media for photochemical reactions.

New Functional Alkoxysilanes and Silatranes: Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Possible Applications.

The aza-Michael reaction of 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (1) and -silatrane (2) with acrylates affords functionalized silyl-(3-8) and silatranyl-(9-14) mono- and diadducts with up to a 99% yield. Their structure has been proved with IR and NMR spectroscopies, mass spectrometry and XRD analysis. The hydrolytic homo-condensation of triethoxysilanes 3-5 gives siloxanes 3a-5a, which form complexes with Ag, Cu, and Ni salts. They are also able to adsorb these metals from solutions. The hetero-condensation reaction of silanes 4-8 with OH groups of zeolite (Z), silica gel (S) and glass (G) delivers the modified materials (Z4, S7, G4, G5, G7, G8, etc.), which can adsorb ions of noble metal (Au, Rh, Pd: G4 + Au, G5 + Pd, G7 + Rh). Thus, the synthesized Si-organic polymers and materials turned out to be promising sorbents (enterosorbents) of noble, heavy, toxic metal ions and can be applied in industry, environment, and medicine.

Rapid, room-temperature self-organization of polyarylated 1H-pyrroles from acetylenes and nitriles in the KOBut/DMSO system.

We have discovered that three molecules of arylacetylene are rapidly (15 min) assembled with one molecule of nitrile at room temperature in the KOBut/DMSO system to afford 2-aryl-3-arylethynyl-4-aryl-5-benzyl-1H-pyrroles in up to 76% yield. We assume that this unprecedented self-organization process involves the cascade addition of acetylenic carbanions, first to the CN, then to the CC and CC bonds of the intermediates, followed by pyrrole ring closure via the intramolecular nucleophilic addition of the NH functional group to the CC bond of the final intermediates.

New 3-Aminopropylsilatrane Derivatives: Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Biological Activity.

The biologically active compound 3-aminopropylsilatrane (a compound with a pentacoordinated silicon atom) underwent an aza-Michael reaction with various acrylates and other Michael acceptors. Depending on the molar ratio, the reaction yielded Michael mono- or diadducts (11 examples) containing functional groups (silatranyl, carbonyl, nitrile, amino, etc.). These compounds were characterized via IR and NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, X-ray diffraction, and elemental analysis. Calculations (using in silico, PASS, and SwissADMET online software) revealed that the functionalized (hybrid) silatranes were bioavailable, druglike compounds that exhibited pronounced antineoplastic and macrophage-colony-stimulating activity. The in vitro effect of silatranes on the growth of pathogenic bacteria (Listeria, Staphylococcus, and Yersinia) was studied. It was found that the synthesized compounds exerted inhibitory and stimulating effects in high and low concentrations, respectively.

Quantum-Chemical Study of the Assembly Mechanism of 1-Pyrrolines from N-Benzylaldimines and Arylacetylenes in KOtBu/DMSO Superbasic Medium.

By using a quantum-chemical approach, B2PLYP-D2/6-311+G**//B3LYP/6-31+G*, we have carried out a detailed study of the assembly of 1-pyrrolines from N-benzyl-1-phenylmethanimine and phenylacetylene in the superbasic medium KOtBu/dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). In this way, we have considered, both theoretically and experimentally, the mechanisms of the assembly through a concerted and stepwise nucleophilic cycloaddition and have addressed the side processes accompanying the assembly. It is found that the assembly via the concerted cycloaddition is kinetically more favorable than that via the stepwise cycloaddition. At the same time, the reaction of C-vinylation of aldimine with phenylacetylene occurs with a similar activation energy as the concerted cycloaddition and leads to the formation of 2-aza-1,4-pentadiene. The anion of 2-aza-1,4-pentadiene is an intermediate for the side processes leading to the formation of triarylpyridines and 1,3-diarylpropan-1-ones. Triarylpyridines are formed through the concerted cycloaddition of the next phenylacetylene molecule to 2-aza-1,4-pentadiene, while 1,3-diarylpropan-1-ones are formed as a result of the hydrolysis of 2-aza-1,4-pentadienes. It is found out that the mild conditions for the assembly of 1-pyrrolines (60 °C, 15 min) relate to the formation of complexes in the KOtBu/DMSO superbasic medium, where the anion is readily accessible for the nucleophilic attack by the phenylacetylene molecule.

Novel Route to Cationic Palladium(II)-Cyclopentadienyl Complexes Containing Phosphine Ligands and Their Catalytic Activities.

The Pd(II) complexes [Pd(Cp)(L)n]m[BF4]m were synthesized via the reaction of cationic acetylacetonate complexes with cyclopentadiene in the presence of BF3∙OEt2 (n = 2, m = 1: L = PPh3 (1), P(p-Tol)3, tris(ortho-methoxyphenyl)phosphine (TOMPP), tri-2-furylphosphine, tri-2-thienylphosphine; n = 1, m = 1: L = dppf, dppp (2), dppb (3), 1,5-bis(diphenylphosphino)pentane; n = 1, m = 2 or 3: 1,6-bis(diphenylphosphino)hexane). Complexes 1-3 were characterized using X-ray diffractometry. The inspection of the crystal structures of the complexes enabled the recognition of (Cp-)⋯(Ph-group) and (Cp-)⋯(CH2-group) interactions, which are of C-H…π nature. The presence of these interactions was confirmed theoretically via DFT calculations using QTAIM analysis. The intermolecular interactions in the X-ray structures are non-covalent in origin with an estimated energy of 0.3-1.6 kcal/mol. The cationic palladium catalyst precursors with monophosphines were found to be active catalysts for the telomerization of 1,3-butadiene with methanol (TON up to 2.4∙104 mol 1,3-butadiene per mol Pd with chemoselectivity of 82%). Complex [Pd(Cp)(TOMPP)2]BF4 was found to be an efficient catalyst for the polymerization of phenylacetylene (PA) (catalyst activities up to 8.9 × 103 gPA·(molPd·h)-1 were observed).

Reactions of α-Functionally Substituted Enals with Terminal Alkynes: Unexpected Assembly of 2-Amino-2-Cyclopentenones.

The reactions of α-chalcogen, α-halo, or α-amino functionally substituted enals with terminal alkynes leading either to corresponding propargyl alcohols (for O-, S-, Cl-, and Br-bearing substrates) or unexpected 2-amino-2-cyclopentenones (for aminoenals) are described. The key feature of these reactions is the rearrangement of adducts bearing amino groups on silica gel that triggered further cyclization to five-membered carbocycles.

Concise assembly of 7-ethynyl-6,8-dioxabicyclo[3.2.1]octanes from acetylenes and ketones.

2-Acetyl-3,4-dihydropyrans, assembled from acetylene gas and ketones in a one-pot procedure, are ethynylated with acetylenes (KOBut/DMSO, 15 °C, 2 h) to give acetylenic alcohols, which readily cyclize (TFA, rt, 5 min) to 7-ethynyl-6,8-dioxabicyclo[3.2.1]octanes in up to 92% yield. The ring closure of the above acetylenic alcohols can be performed without their isolation from the reaction mixture. Thus, the synthesis of 7-ethynyl-6,8-dioxabicyclo[3.2.1]octanes can be realized in just two synthetic operations from simple and available starting materials under mild transition-metal-free conditions.

Unexpected Decarbonylation of Acylethynylpyrroles under the Action of Cyanomethyl Carbanion: A Robust Access to Ethynylpyrroles.

It has been found that the addition of CH2CN- anion to the carbonyl group of acylethynylpyrroles, generated from acetonitrile and t-BuOK, results in the formation of acetylenic alcohols, which undergo unexpectedly easy (room temperature) decomposition to ethynylpyrroles and cyanomethylphenylketones (retro-Favorsky reaction). This finding allows a robust synthesis of ethynylpyrroles in up to 95% yields to be developed. Since acylethynylpyrroles became available, the strategy thus found makes ethynylpyrroles more accessible than earlier. The quantum-chemical calculations (B2PLYP/6-311G**//B3LYP/6-311G**+C-PCM/acetonitrile) confirm the thermodynamic preference of the decomposition of the intermediate acetylenic alcohols to free ethynylpyrroles rather than their potassium derivatives.

Contributing to Biochemistry and Optoelectronics: Pyrrolo[1',2':2,3]imidazo[1,5-a]indoles and Cyclohepta[4,5]pyrrolo[1,2-c]pyrrolo[1,2-a]imidazoles via [3+2] Annulation of Acylethynylcycloalka[b]pyrroles with Δ1-Pyrrolines.

Available pyrrolylalkynones with tetrahydroindolyl, cycloalkanopyrrolyl, and dihydrobenzo[g]indolyl moieties, acylethynylcycloalka[b]pyrroles, are readily annulated with Δ1-pyrrolines (MeCN/THF, 70 °C, 8 h) to afford a series of novel pyrrolo[1',2':2,3]imidazo[1,5-a]indoles and cyclohepta[4,5]pyrrolo[1,2-c]pyrrolo[1,2-a]imidazoles functionalized with an acylethenyl group in up to an 81% yield. This original synthetic approach contributes to the arsenal of chemical methods promoting drug discovery. Photophysical studies show that some of the synthesized compounds, e.g., benzo[g]pyrroloimidazoindoles, are prospective candidates for TADF emitters of OLED.

Diastereoselective synthesis of tetrahydropyrrolo[1,2-d]oxadiazoles from functionalized Δ1-pyrrolines and in situ generated nitrile oxides.

Tetrahydropyrrolo[1,2-d]oxadiazoles have been synthesized in good-to-excellent yields via the cycloaddition of nitrile oxides (in situ generated from aldoximes) to readily accessible functionalized Δ1-pyrrolines. The reaction proceeds smoothly at room temperature in a two-phase system in the presence of sodium hypochloride as an oxidant to diastereoselectively afford pharmaceutically prospective 1,2,4-oxadiazolines fused with a five-membered ring. The reaction tolerates a broad range of substrates, including those with oxidant-sensitive functional groups and competitive reaction sites.

Substituent-Dependent Divergent Synthesis of 2-(3-Amino-2,4-dicyanophenyl)pyrroles, Pyrrolyldienols and 3-Amino-1-acylethylidene-2-cyanopyrrolizines via Reaction of Acylethynylpyrroles with Malononitrile.

An efficient method for the synthesis of pharmaceutically and high-tech prospective 2-(3-amino-2,4-dicyanophenyl)pyrroles (in up to 88% yield) via the reaction of easily available substituted acylethynylpyrroles with malononitrile has been developed. The reaction proceeds in the KOH/MeCN system at 0 °C for 2 h. In the case of 2-acylethynylpyrroles without substituents in the pyrrole ring, the reaction changes direction: instead of the target 2-(3-amino-2,4-dicyanophenyl)pyrroles, the unexpected formation of pyrrolyldienols and products of their intramolecular cyclization, 3-amino-1-acylethylidene-2-cyanopyrrolizines, is observed.

Redirecting of Charge Transfer Enables the Control of the Photoactivity of Terarylenes.

Photoinduced charge transfer affects the efficiency and selectivity of photochemical reactions. Incorporation of donating groups into the isoquinolinium core allowed us to overcome the photochemical inactivity of the corresponding dithienyl-substituted terarylenes, presumably by redirecting the charge transfer within the molecule, and gave access to a new family of thermally reversible photoswitches.

Heterocyclization of Bis(2-chloroprop-2-en-1-yl)sulfide in Hydrazine Hydrate-KOH: Synthesis of Thiophene and Pyrrole Derivatives.

The article is devoted to heterocyclization of bis(2-chloroprop-2-en-1-yl)sulfide which proceeds in hydrazine hydrate-alkali medium and leads to formation of thiophene and pyrrole derivatives: previously described 4,5,9,10-tetrahydrocycloocta[1,2-c;5,8-c']dithiophene, as well as unknown hydrazone of 5-methylidene-3-methyldihydrothiophen-2-one and 1-amino-2-(propynylsulfanylpropenylsulfanyl)-3,5-dimethylpyrrole. Tentative mechanisms for the formation of the heterocyclic products are discussed. Obtained hydrazone of 5-methylidene-3-methyldihydrothiophen-2-one was used for the synthesis of a range of azine derivatives and in oxidation process with SeO2. The found reactions open up expedient approaches to the formation of various hardly accessible thiophene and pyrrole compounds from 2,3-dichloropropene and elemental sulfur as starting reagents.

Semistabilized Diazatrienyl Anions from Pyridine Imines and Acetylenes: An Access to (Z)-Stilbene/Imidazopyridine Ensembles, Benzyl Imidazopyridines, and Beyond.

Semistabilized diazatrienyl anions are generated by the reaction of 2-pyridylarylimines with arylacetylenes in superbase systems MOtBu (M = Li, Na, K)/DMSO at ambient temperature for 15 min. The initial intermediate N-centered propargyl-1,3-diaza-1,3,5-trienyl anions undergo intermolecular cyclization to benzyl imidazopyridine anions (formally [3 + 2] cycloaddition), further intercepting a second molecule of the starting pyridylimines or a proton of medium to afford (Z)-stilbene/imidazopyridine ensembles and benzyl imidazopyridines. The charge distribution in all intermediate anions and their synthetic evolution are consistent with quantum-chemical analysis (B2PLYPD/6-311+G**//B3LYP/6-31+G*).