Influence of colour background on anti-viral activity against viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus in zebrafish regulated by circadian rhythm signalling pathway.

The influence of colour background on the regulation of behavioural and physiological responses in zebrafish is widely recognized. However, its specific effect on virus infection in zebrafish remains unclear. This study aimed to explore the susceptibility of zebrafish to viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) infection in relation to background colour, investigate the underlying mechanisms, and elucidate the involvement of key molecules, using proteomic and gene expression analyses. The results revealed that zebrafish housed in a blue tank exhibited higher survival rates and considerably reduced VHSV replication compared to those housed in a yellow tank. Further, up-regulation of apolipoprotein 1 (APOA1) was identified as a crucial shared mechanism associated with survival in zebrafish exposed to VHSV infection and reared in a blue background. The mRNA expression level of bmal1a, a core gene involved in the circadian rhythm, was consistently downregulated in fish from the blue tank compared to fish from the yellow tank, regardless of infection status. Subsequently, zebrafish in the blue tank were exposed to daylight conditions to stimulate per2 and pgc1a expression, aiming to investigate their potential impact on VHSV infection. The validity of these interconnected events, triggered by background colour, involving APOA1 up-regulation, circadian rhythm modulation, and antiviral responses, was confirmed by treatments with hesperetin and cyclosporine A, an activator and inhibitor of apoa1 respectively. Our findings revealed the influence of background colour on the apoa1 expression level, thus establishing the involvement of a novel network through circadian rhythm signalling.

Human Norovirus-Induced Gene Expression Biomarkers in Zebrafish.

ABSTRACT: The challenges associated with development of an animal model system to replicate human norovirus (HuNoV) has hampered the study of the pathogenesis and therapeutic interventions for this virus. In this study, we replicated HuNoV GII.4 and evaluated virus gene expression in infected zebrafish. Three doses of inoculation resulted in successful virus replication. Genes for transmembrane transporters (tfa, cftr, slc26a3, and slc26a6), a heat shock chaperone (hspa8), and immune response cytokines (ifng1 and il1b) were highly expressed in HuNoV-infected zebrafish; however, expression levels of genes were reduced in zebrafish infected with thermally inactivated HuNoV. These results confirm HuNoV replication in juvenile zebrafish and will facilitate the investigation of biomarker gene expression during HuNoV infection.

Identification of rearing temperature-dependent host defense signaling against viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus infection.

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) infection is associated with fatal outcomes in the aquaculture production of olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). Olive flounders at low and high temperatures are known to be highly susceptible and resistant to VHSV infection, respectively. To study temperature-dependent innate immune activity, 4-aminobenzoic hydrazide (4-AH), a myeloperoxidase (MPO) inhibitor, was used to treat VHSV-infected olive flounders reared at a high temperature of 20 °C (20VI). Mortality, the MPO transcription, and the proteomic expression pattern of the 20VI group were then compared with those of groups of VHSV-infected flounders reared at 15 °C (15V) and 20 °C (20V). The cumulative mortality rate of the 20VI group was increased by 35% compared with that of the untreated 20V group. The MPO transcription was decreased 5.8-fold in 20VI than in 20V group. Its expression decreased further at a lower temperature and after exposure to VHSV. Histopathological analysis revealed necrosis of splenic tissue in 20VI and 15V, but not in 20V group. Based on clustering analysis, proteins with increased expression in 15V and 20VI groups were associated with viral mRNA translation and reproduction compared with those of 20V group. Increased expression of DHX58, MX1, and UBB was detected in 15V and 20VI groups, suggesting a role in triggering innate immune response. Unfortunately, these genes failed to induce the translocation of GLUT4 to the surface membrane from the intracellular location due to decreased expression of 14-3-3 proteins (YWHAB and YWHAZ) and microtubules (TUBA1A and TUBB4B). Suppression of glucose supply led to inactivation of MPO and suppression of MHC-I and MHC-II-linked immune activity, resulting in high viral infection and spread. In conclusion, this study highlights that defective GLUT4 translocation-dependent glucose uptake increases the mortality of VHSV-infected olive flounders by inhibiting MPO activity.

Bean Extract-Based Gargle for Efficient Diagnosis of Active COVID-19 Infection Using Rapid Antigen Tests.

The antigen-based rapid diagnostic test (Ag-RDT) using saliva specimens is fast, noninvasive, and suitable for SARS-CoV-2 self-testing, unlike nasopharyngeal swab (NPS) testing. We evaluated a novel Beanguard gargle (BG)-based virus collection method that can be applied to Ag-RDT as an alternative to the current RT-PCR with an NPS for early diagnosis of COVID-19. This clinical trial comprised 102 COVID-19-positive patients hospitalized after a governmental screening process and 100 healthy individuals. Paired NPS and BG-based saliva specimens from COVID-19 patients and healthy individuals were analyzed using NPS-RT-PCR, BG-RT-PCR, and BG-Ag-RDTs, whose diagnostic performance for detecting SARS-CoV-2 was compared. BG-Ag-RDTs showed high sensitivity (97.8%) and specificity (100%) in 45 patients within 6 days of illness and detected all cases of SARS-CoV-2 Alpha and Delta variants. In 11 asymptomatic active COVID-19 cases, both BG-Ag-RDTs and BG-RT-PCR showed sensitivities and specificities of 100%. Sensitivities of BG-Ag-RDT and BG-RT-PCR toward salivary viral detection were highly concordant, with no discrimination between symptomatic (97.0%), asymptomatic (100%), or SARS-CoV-2 variant (100%) cases. The intermolecular interactions between SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins and truncated canavalin, an active ingredient from the bean extract (BE), were observed in terms of physicochemical properties. The detachment of the SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain from hACE2 increased as the BE concentration increased, allowing the release of the virus from hACE2 for early diagnosis. Using BG-based saliva specimens remarkably enhances the Ag-RDT diagnostic performance as an alternative to NPS and enables noninvasive, rapid, and accurate COVID-19 self-testing and mass screening, supporting efficient COVID-19 management. IMPORTANCE An Ag-RDT is less likely to be accepted as an initial test method for early diagnosis owing to its low sensitivity. However, our self-collection method, Ag-RDT using BG-based saliva specimens, showed significantly enhanced detection sensitivity and specificity toward SARS-CoV-2 including the Alpha and Delta variants in all patients tested within 6 days of illness. The method represents an attractive alternative to nasopharyngeal swabs for the early diagnosis of symptomatic and asymptomatic COVID-19 cases. The evidence suggests that the method could have a potential for mass screening and monitoring of COVID-19 cases.

Performance of concanavalin A-immobilized on polyacrylate beads for the detection of human norovirus and hepatitis A virus in fecal specimens.

Quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) is a sensitive method for the detection of foodborne viruses in fecal samples. However, the performance of qRT-PCR depends on the efficiency of virus concentration methods. In this study, the effect of Concanavalin A (Con A)-immobilized on polyacrylate beads (Con A-PAB) on the qRT-PCR performance, in terms of sensitivity and specificity to detect foodborne viruses in human fecal specimens was compared with commercial viral RNA extraction kit (VRNA). The detection of foodborne viruses by qRT-PCR was validated by viral genome sequencing. Both Con A-PAB and VRNA methods were equally sensitive and specific for detecting hepatitis A virus in fecal specimens. Even though both methods showed high specificity (100% vs. 100%) for detecting human norovirus (HuNoV), Con A-PAB method exhibited higher sensitivity (100% vs. 42.9%) and accuracy (100% vs. 73.3%) compared to VRNA method. In conclusion, the application of Con A-PAB would improve the performance of qRT-PCR for the detection of HuNoV in fecal samples.

Human Norovirus Replication in Temperature-Optimized MDCK Cells by Forkhead Box O1 Inhibition.

Human noroviruses (HuNoVs) are a leading cause of gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide. However, the paucity of appropriate cell culture model for HuNoV replication has prevented developing effective anti-HuNoV therapy. In this study, first, the replication of the virus at various temperatures in different cells was compared, which showed that lowering the culture temperature from 37°C significantly increased virus replication in Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. Second, the expression levels of autophagy-, immune-, and apoptosis-related genes at 30°C and 37°C were compared to explore factors affecting HuNoV replication. HuNoV cultured at 37°C showed significantly increased autophagy- (ATG5 and ATG7) and immune- (IFNA, IFNB, ISG15, and NFKB) related genes compared to mock. However, the virus cultured at 30°C showed significantly decreased expression of autophagy- (ATG5 and ATG7) and not significantly different in major immune- (IFNA, ISG15, and NFKB) related genes compared to mock. Importantly, expression of the transcription factor FOXO1, which controls autophagy- and immune-related gene expression, was significantly lower at 30°C. Moreover, FOXO1 inhibition in temperature-optimized MDCK cells enhanced HuNoV replication, highlighting FOXO1 inhibition as an approach for successful virus replication. In the temperature-optimized cells, various HuNoV genotypes were successfully replicated, with GI.8 showing the highest replication levels followed by GII.1, GII.3, and GII.4. Furthermore, ultrastructural analysis of the infected cells revealed functional HuNoV replication at low temperature, with increased cellular apoptosis and decreased autophagic vacuoles. In conclusion, temperature-optimized MDCK cells can be used as a convenient culture model for HuNoV replication by inhibiting FOXO1, providing adaptability to different genotypes.

Elucidation of mechanism for host response to VHSV infection at varying temperatures in vitro and in vivo through proteomic analysis.

Seasonal temperature has a major influence on the infectivity of pathogens and the host immune system. Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) is one such pathogen that only causes the mortality of fish at low temperatures. This study aims to discover the host defense mechanism and pathway for resistance to VHSV at higher temperatures. We first observed the VHSV infection patterns at low and higher temperatures in fathead minnow (FHM) cells (20 °C and 28 °C) and zebrafish (15 °C and 25 °C). In comparison to the 20 °C infection, FHM cells infected at 28 °C showed decreased apoptosis, increased cell viability, and reduced VHSV N gene expression. In zebrafish, infection at 25 °C caused no mortality and significantly reduced the N gene copy number in comparison to infection at 15 °C. To explore the antiviral infection mechanisms induced by high temperature in vitro and in vivo, the changes in the proteomic profile were measured through UPLC-MSE analysis. ACADL, PTPN6, TLR1, F7, A2M, and GLI2 were selected as high temperature-specific biomarkers in the FHM cell proteome; and MYH9, HPX, ANTXR1, APOA1, HBZ, and MYH7 were selected in zebrafish. Increased immune response, anticoagulation effects, and the formation of lymphocytes from hematopoietic stem cells were analyzed as functions that were commonly induced by high temperature in vitro and in vivo. Among these biomarkers, GLI2 was predicted as an upstream regulator. When treated with GANT58, a GLI-specific inhibitor, cell viability was further reduced due to GLI2 inhibition during VHSV infection at varying temperatures in FHM cells, and the mortality in zebrafish was induced earlier at the low temperature. Overall, this study discovered a new mechanism for VHSV infection in vitro and in vivo that is regulated by GLI2 protein.

Application of Concanavalin A-Linked Magnetic Beads for the Detection of Hepatitis A Virus.

Prompt and inexpensive detection of hepatitis A virus (HAV) is essential to control acute hepatitis outbreaks associated with the consumption of contaminated raw or minimally processed food. In this study, various carbohydrate-binding lectins, including concanavalin A (Con A), wheat germ agglutinin, and soybean agglutinin, were compared for their binding affinity to HAV. Con A, which showed significantly higher binding affinity than other lectins, was used to develop an alternative and affordable method to conventional antibody-linked immunomagnetic separation prior to detection of HAV using reverse transcriptase PCR. This method, Con A-linked immunomagnetic separation combined with reverse transcriptase PCR, can detect HAV at a dilution concentration of 10-4 of the virus stock (titer: 104 median tissue culture infective dose per mL), indicating that Con A could be a promising candidate for concentrating HAV.

Integrated profiling of global metabolomic and transcriptomic responses to viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus infection in olive flounder.

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) is one of the most serious viral pathogen that infects farmed fish. In this study, we measured the replication of VHSV increased steadily at 9, 24, 72, and 120 h after infection and progression of necrosis was observed at 72 hpi. We performed transcriptomic and metabolomics profiling of kidney tissues collected at each infection time using Illumina HiSeq2000 and ultra-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectroscopy to investigate the mechanisms of VHSV infection in the kidneys of olive flounder. A total of 13,862 mRNA molecules and 72 metabolites were selected to identify the mechanisms of infection and they were integrated using KEGG pathway database. Six KEGG metabolic pathways, including carbohydrate metabolism, amino acid metabolism, lipid metabolism, transport and catabolism, metabolism of cofactors and vitamins, and energy metabolism, were significantly suppressed, whereas the immune system was activated by VHSV infection. A decrease in levels of amino acids such as valine, leucine, and isoleucine, as well as in their derivative carnitines, was observed after VHSV infection. In addition, an increase in arachidonic acid level was noted. Integrated analysis of transcriptome and metabolome using KEGG pathway database revealed four types of responses in the kidneys of olive flounder to VHSV infection. Among these, the mechanisms related to the immune system and protein synthesis were activated, whereas ATP synthesis and the antioxidant system activity were suppressed. This is the first study describing the mechanisms of metabolic responses to VHSV infection in olive flounder. The results suggest that the suppression of ATP synthesis and antioxidant systems, such as glutathione and peroxisome signaling, could be the cause of necrosis, whereas the activation of the immune system could result in the inflammation of kidney tissue in VHSV-infected olive flounder.

Exploration of the metal coordination region of concanavalin A for its interaction with human norovirus.

Rapid methods for the detection and clinical treatment of human norovirus (HuNoV) are needed to control foodborne disease outbreaks, but reliable techniques that are fast and sensitive enough to detect small amounts of HuNoV in food and aquatic environments are not yet available. We explore the interactions between HuNoV and concanavalin A (Con A), which could facilitate the development of a sensitive detection tool for HuNoV. Biophysical studies including hydrogen/deuterium exchange (HDX) mass spectrometry and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) revealed that when the metal coordinated region of Con A, which spans Asp16 to His24, is converted to nine alanine residues (mCon AMCR), the affinity for HuNoV (GII.4) diminishes, demonstrating that this Ca2+ and Mn2+ coordinated region is responsible for the observed virus-protein interaction. The mutated carbohydrate binding region of Con A (mCon ACBR) does not affect binding affinity significantly, indicating that MCR of Con A is a major region of interaction to HuNoV (GII.4). The results further contribute to the development of a HuNoV concentration tool, Con A-immobilized polyacrylate beads (Con A-PAB), for rapid detection of genotypes from genogroups I and II (GI and GII). This method offers many advantages over currently available methods, including a short concentration time. HuNov (GI and GII) can be detected in just 15 min with 90% recovery through Con A-PAB application. In addition, this method can be used over a wide range of pH values (pH 3.0 - 10.0). Overall, this rapid and sensitive detection of HuNoV (GI and GII) will aid in the prevention of virus transmission pathways, and the method developed here may have applicability for other foodborne viral infections.

Estrogenic Activity of Hyperforin in MCF-7 Human Breast Cancer Cells Transfected with Estrogen Receptor.

Hyperforin, a major active compound of St. John's wort extract, affects estrogenic activity. In this study, the compound evoked estrogen response element-dependent luciferase activity and cell proliferation in MCF-7 cells. Hyperforin-induced cell proliferation was significantly inhibited by the estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182,780. These results suggested that hyperforin had estrogenic and cell proliferation activities, which were stimulated via the estrogen receptor. Compared to 17ß-estradiol, hyperforin showed significantly lower estrogenic activity and cell proliferation. The mechanism underlying the estrogenic activity of hyperforin was unknown, therefore, in this study, for the first time, the expression and post-translational modification of proteins were determined and compared among control, 17ß-estradiol-treated, and hyperforin-treated cells using proteomic techniques. A total of 453 proteins were identified, of which 282 proteins were significantly modulated in hyperforin-treated cells compared to 17ß-estradiol-treated cells. Ingenuity pathway analysis also demonstrated that hyperforin treatment induced less cell proliferation than 17ß-estradiol by downregulating estrogen receptor 1. Protein network analysis showed that cell proliferation was regulated mainly by cyclin D1 and extracellular signal-regulated kinases. In conclusion, although, hyperforin exhibited lower estrogenic activity than 17ß-estradiol, the compound induced lower levels of cancer cell proliferation in vitro.

Effectiveness of Periodic Treatment of Quercetin against Influenza A Virus H1N1 through Modulation of Protein Expression.

Kimchi, a traditional fermented food regularly consumed in Korea, contains various types of antimicrobial compounds. Among the tested compounds present in common spices used in Kimchi, quercetin showed the highest selectivity index against influenza A virus (IAV) H1N1. In this study, the effect of pretreatment and periodic treatment with quercetin against IAV in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells was observed. Compared to pretreatment, periodic treatment resulted in significantly higher cell viability but lower relative expression of the IAV PA gene and total apoptosis and cell death. To explain the mechanisms underlying the antiviral effects of quercetin treatment, a comparative proteomic analysis was performed in four samples (mock, quercetin-treated, IAV-infected, and quercetin-treated IAV-infected). Among the 220 proteins, 56 proteins were classified nonhierarchically into three clusters and were differentially modulated by quercetin treatment in IAV-infected cells. Post-translational modifications were identified in 68 proteins. In conclusion, periodic treatment with quercetin is effective in reducing IAV infection, and differentially regulates the expression of key proteins, including heat shock proteins, fibronectin 1, and prohibitin to reduce IAV replication.

Detection of hepatitis A virus in seeded oyster digestive tissue by ricin A-linked magnetic separation combined with reverse transcription PCR.

Outbreaks of hepatitis A virus (HAV) infections are most frequently associated with the consumption of contaminated oysters. A rapid and selective concentration method is necessary for the recovery of HAV from contaminated oysters prior to detection using PCR. In this study, ricin extracted from castor beans (Ricinus communis) was tested as an alternative to antibody used in immunomagnetic separation while concentrating HAV prior to its detection using reverse transcription PCR. Initially, the extracted proteins from castor beans were fractionated into 13 fractions by gel filtration chromatography. Pretreatment of different protein fractions showed a variation in binding of HAV viral protein (VP) 1 to oyster digestive tissue in the range of 25.9 to 63.9%. The protein fraction, which caused the highest reduction in binding of VP1 to the tissue, was identified as ricin A by quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Ricin A could significantly inhibit binding of VP1 to the tissue with a 50% inhibitory concentration of 4.5 µg/ml and a maximal inhibitory concentration of 105.2%. The result showed that the rate of inhibition of HAV binding to tissue was higher compared to the rate of ricin itself binding to HAV (slope: 0.0029 versus 0.00059). However, ricin A concentration showed a higher correlation to the relative binding of ricin itself to HAV than the inhibition of binding of HAV to the tissue (coefficient of determination, R(2): 0.9739 versus 0.6804). In conclusion, ricin A-linked magnetic bead separation combined with reverse transcription PCR can successfully detect HAV in artificially seeded oyster digestive tissue up to a 10(-4) dilution of the virus stock (titer: 10(4) 50% tissue culture infective dose per ml).

Identification of regulators of the early stage of viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus infection during curcumin treatment.

The effect of curcumin pretreatment (15-240 µM) in fathead minnow cells infected with viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus (VHSV) was evaluated. Cell viability, apoptosis and viral copy number were analyzed using Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, Annexin V staining, and reverse transcription-PCR, respectively. Pretreatment with 120 µM curcumin showed an increase in viability (>90% of mock) of VHSV-infected cells and reduction in the copy number (0.2-log reduction in VHSV N gene expression), reactive oxygen species and apoptosis in the cells without cytotoxic effects. To understand the mechanisms underlaying the antiviral effects of curcumin pretreatment, a comparative proteomic analysis was performed in four samples (M, mock; C, curcumin-treated; V, VHSV-infected; and CV, curcumin-treated VHSV-infected) in triplicate. In total, 185 proteins were detected. The analysis showed that three proteins, including heat shock cognate 71 (HSC71), actin, alpha cardiac muscle (ACTC1) and elongation factor 1 (EEF1) were differentially expressed between V and CV samples. Network analysis performed by Ingenuity Pathways Analysis (IPA) showed that HSC71 was the primary protein interacting with fibronectin (FN) 1, actins (ACTB, ACTG, F-actin) and gelsolin (GSN) in both V and CV samples and thus is a strong target candidate for the protection from VHSV infection at the viral entry stage. Our proteomics data suggest that curcumin pretreatment inhibits entry of VHSV in cells by downregulating FN1 or upregulating F-actin. For both proteins, HSC71 acts as a binding protein that modulates their functions. Furthermore, consistent with the effect of a heat shock protein inhibitor (KNK437), curcumin downregulated HSC71 expression with increasing viability of VHSV-infected cells and inhibited VHSV replication, suggesting that the downregulation of HSC71 could be responsible for the antiviral activity of curcumin. In conclusion, this study indicates that the suppression of viral entry by rearrangement of the F-actin/G-actin ratio via downregulating HSC71 is a plausible mechanism by which curcumin pretreatment controls the early stages of VHSV infection.

Modulation of proteome expression by F-type lectin during viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus infection in fathead minnow cells.

Lectins found in fish tissues play an important role in the innate immune response against viral infection. A fucose-binding type lectin, RbFTL-3, from rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus) was identified using expressed sequence tag (EST) analysis. The expression of RbFTL-3 mRNA was higher in intestine than other tissues of rock bream. To determine the function of RbFTL-3, VHSV-susceptible fathead minnow (FHM) cells were transfected with pcDNA3.1(+) or pcDNA3.1(+)-RbFTL-3 and further infected with VHSV. The results show that the viability of FHM cells transfected with pcDNA3.1(+)-RbFTL-3 is higher than that of cells transfected with pcDNA3.1(+) (relative cell viability: 28.9% vs 56.2%). A comparative proteomic analysis, performed to explore the proteins related to the protective effect of RbFTL-3 in the cells during VHSV infection, identified 90 proteins differentially expressed in VHSV-infected FHM cells transfected with pcDNA3.1(+) or pcDNA3.1(+)-RbFTL-3. The expression of RbFTL-3 inhibits a vascular-sorting protein (SNF8) and diminishes the loss of prothrombin, which are closely associated with controlling viral budding and hemorrhage in fish cells, respectively. Subsequent Ingenuity Pathways Analysis enabled prediction of their biofunctional groupings and interaction networks. The results suggest RbFTL-3 modulates the expression of proteins related to viral budding (SNF8, CCT5 and TUBB) and thrombin signaling (F2) to increase the viability of VHSV infected cells.

Development of lectin-linked immunomagnetic separation for the detection of hepatitis a virus.

The accuracy and sensitivity of PCR-based methods for detection of hepatitis A virus (HAV) are dependent on the methods used to separate and concentrate the HAV from the infected cells. The pH and ionic strength affect the binding affinity of the virus to cells. In this study, we initially investigated the effects of pH (4.0-10.0) and metal ions (Fe²âº, Co²âº, Cu²âº, Mg²âº, K⁺, and Ca²âº) on the binding of HAV to oyster digestive cells. The lowest relative binding (RB) of HAV to the cells was found at pH 4.0 and in FeSO4 solution (64.6% and 68.1%, respectively). To develop an alternative to antibody-dependent immunomagnetic separation prior to detection of HAV using RT-PCR, the binding of HAV to five lectins, peanut agglutinin (PNA), Dolichos biflorus agglutinin (DBA), Helix pomatia agglutinin (HPA), Ulex europaeus agglutinin (UEA-1) and soybean agglutinin (SBA), was evaluated using ELISAs. SBA showed significantly higher RB to HAV than the other lectins tested. In addition, HAV could be concentrated within 30 min using SBA-linked magnetic bead separation (SMS) prior to the RT-PCR assay. Our findings demonstrate the feasibility of using SMS combined with RT-PCR to detect HAV at dilutions ranging from 10⁻¹-10⁻4 of a HAV stock (titer: 104 TCID50/mL).