Intergroup time bias and aversive racism in the medical context.

Time is fundamental to organizing all aspects of human life. When invested in relationships, it has a psychological meaning as it indicates how much individuals value others and their interest in maintaining social relationships. Previous research has identified an intergroup time bias (ITB) in racialized social relations, defined as a discriminatory behavior in which White individuals invest more time in evaluating White than Black individuals. This research proposes an aversive racism explanation for the ITB effect and examines its consequences in the medical context. In four experimental studies (N = 434), we found that White medical trainees invested more time in forming impressions of White (vs. Black) male patients. Study 5 (N = 193) further revealed more time investment in diagnosing, assessing pain, and prescribing opioids for White than Black male patients. This biased time effect mediated the impact of patients' skin color on health care outcomes, leading to greater diagnostic accuracy and pain perception, and lower opioid prescriptions. A meta-analytical integration of the results (Study 6) confirmed the ITB effect reliability across experiments and that it is stronger in participants with an aversive racist profile (vs. consistently prejudiced or nonprejudiced). These findings provide the first evidence that bias in time investment favoring White (vs. Black) patients is associated with aversive racism and impacts medical health care outcomes. Furthermore, these results offer insights into the sociopsychological meaning of time investment in health care and provide a theoretical explanation for an understudied insidious form of discrimination that is critical to comprehending the persistency of racial health care disparities. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Psychometric Assessment of the Physicians' Job Demands and Resources Scale.

Job demands and resources have been consistently associated with the burnout syndrome in physicians, however the literature points to a lack of robust measures to assess these job characteristics across various medical specialties. This study aimed to develop a theoretically and empirically grounded physician-specific job demands and resources self-report measure - the Physicians' Job Demands and Resources Scale. Relevant dimensions of physicians' job demands and resources were identified, corresponding measurement items were generated and pre-tested, and the factor structure of the resulting 44 items was tested with a sample of 9,176 Portuguese physicians. The results of EFAs and CFAs with two random split samples provided consistent evidence of a nine-factor structure with 38 of the 44 items. Importantly, the nine-factor structure is consistent with the dimensions identified in the literature. The paper discusses the theoretical and practical impacts of the scale.

How Fair is Economic Inequality? Belief in a Just World and the Legitimation of Economic Disparities in 27 European Countries.

This article aims to examine the role of Belief in a Just World (BJW) in the legitimation of economic inequality. Using data from 27 European countries (N=47,086), we conducted multilevel analyses and found that BJW positively predicted the legitimation of economic inequality, measured by three indicators: the perceived fairness of the overall wealth inequality, and the fairness of the earnings made by the Top 10% and the Bottom 10% of society. These results persisted after controlling for individual- and country-level variables. Moreover, the BJW effect was stronger on the legitimation of the Bottom 10% incomes, compared to the legitimation of the Top 10%. We also found that economic inequality at the country-level reduced the BJW effect on legitimation of inequality. Finally, BJW displayed a negative indirect effect on support for redistribution, via the legitimation of economic inequalities.

Predictors of Burnout Among Physicians: Evidence From a National Study in Portugal.

The aims of this research on burnout among physicians were threefold, (1) to characterize the burnout symptoms' prevalence among Portuguese physicians, (2) to test the hypothesis that organizational demands and resources add, on top of other factors, to the explanatory level of burnout; and (3) to explore the predictors of organizational demands and resources. Data collection was conducted online at the national level in Portugal, with 9,176 complete replies and a response rate of 21%. Predictors stemming from theoretical models of an intra-individual, occupational, organizational, and socio-psychological nature were measured using an online/paper survey. Results were analyzed through a significantly modified version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) after transformations to address the fit of this measure in this sample. Results show that 66% of physicians have high levels of emotional exhaustion, 33% high levels of depersonalization, and 39% high levels of decrease of personal accomplishment. Moreover, a first set of hierarchical multiple regression models with burnout symptoms reveals that organizational resources, demands of the relationship with the patients and of work schedule are consistently important predictors of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization on top of other theoretically relevant predictors. A second set of regression models with the organizational-level variables shows that, aside from organizational variables, other context variables, like procedural justice and teamwork, have the most substantial predictive value. These results highlight the importance of recognizing physicians' burnout as a phenomenon that is predicted by a wide variety of factors, but also the importance of attending to the particular role of circumstancial factors that may be addressed in future interventions.

Under Victimization by an Outgroup: Belief in a Just World, National Identification, and Ingroup Blame.

Using representative probabilistic samples of Portuguese citizens and framed by an intergroup perspective, we carried out two studies aiming to address how national identification and belief in a just world (BJW) jointly predict secondary victimization of an ingroup as a whole (specifically ingroup blame). We conducted Study 1 (N = 779) in 2014, at the height of the European austerity policies imposed on Portugal by an institutional outgroup, specifically the Troika (the European Union, the European Central Bank, and the International Monetary Fund). Study 2 (N = 1140) was conducted after the Troika intervention. An environment of ongoing ingroup suffering caused by an outgroup is more threatening for the BJW of individuals who are more identified with the ingroup. We therefore predicted and found that BJW was positively associated with ingroup blame in participants higher in national identification when the victimization provoked by an institutional outgroup was higher (Study 1). However, when the suffering caused by the outgroup decreased, the association between BJW and secondary victimization was not moderated by individuals' national identification (Study 2). Indeed, a three-way interaction was found between BJW, national identification, and social context (high vs. low victimization). These results are an important contribution for the literature about justice motivation in terms of intergroup relations, because they show that secondary victimization produced by a threat to BJW has a group-based identity function.

Correction: Justifying gender discrimination in the workplace: The mediating role of motherhood myths.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0190657.].

The Ego-Defensive Role of Legitimacy: How Threat-Based Justifications Protect the Self-Esteem of Discriminators.

This article analyzes the ego-defensive role played by legitimation, by examining the hypothesis that threat-based justifications attenuate the negative effect on an individual's self-esteem caused by his or her becoming aware of his or her own discriminatory behavior. Across three studies (including a pilot experiment), participants who were led to believe that they had acted in a discriminatory way experienced a decrease in their self-esteem. In Study 1 ( N = 116), this effect was nullified when discrimination was justified by either symbolic or realistic threat perceptions. Study 2 ( N = 250) replicated this pattern of results and went further by showing that discrimination affects self-esteem only in more egalitarian individuals, whereas for those less egalitarian, it affects their social image. According to the ego-defensive role of legitimation, a meta-analytical integration of the results confirmed that the influence of discrimination in depressing self-esteem is moderated by threat-based justifications.

Majority Group Members' Negative Reactions to Future Demographic Shifts Depend on the Perceived Legitimacy of Their Status: Findings from the United States and Portugal.

Using concepts from social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1979), we examined whether racial/ethnic majority group members' reactions to future demographic shifts is a function of the degree to which they perceive their ingroup's higher-status in society to be legitimate. In two studies, participants who varied in the degree to which they perceived their group's status to be legitimate were either exposed to real projections for 2060 (i.e., large decline in proportion of population that is the "majority" group), or fake projections for 2060-that resembled current figures (i.e., small decline). In Study 1, White Americans who perceived their status to be highly legitimate expressed greater intergroup threat, and negative feelings (anger and fear) toward minorities after exposure to projections with a large decline in the relative size of the White American population. In contrast, demographic shift condition had no effect on intergroup threat and negative feelings toward minorities among White Americans who perceived their status to be relatively illegitimate; negative feelings and threat remained low across both conditions. Similarly, in Study 2, ethnic Portuguese people in Portugal exposed to projections in which there was a large decline in the relative size of the ethnic Portuguese population experienced more intergroup threat and expressed a greater desire to engage in anti-immigration behaviors. The effect of demographic shift condition on intergroup threat and anti-immigration behaviors was stronger among ethnic Portuguese who perceived their status to be legitimate compared to ethnic Portuguese people who perceived their status to be relatively illegitimate. These results highlight that across different cultural contexts, majority group members' beliefs about the legitimacy of intergroup relations can affect their reactions to the prospect of increased diversity.

Justifying gender discrimination in the workplace: The mediating role of motherhood myths.

The issue of gender equality in employment has given rise to numerous policies in advanced industrial countries, all aimed at tackling gender discrimination regarding recruitment, salary and promotion. Yet gender inequalities in the workplace persist. The purpose of this research is to document the psychosocial process involved in the persistence of gender discrimination against working women. Drawing on the literature on the justification of discrimination, we hypothesized that the myths according to which women's work threatens children and family life mediates the relationship between sexism and opposition to a mother's career. We tested this hypothesis using the Family and Changing Gender Roles module of the International Social Survey Programme. The dataset contained data collected in 1994 and 2012 from 51632 respondents from 18 countries. Structural equation modellings confirmed the hypothesised mediation. Overall, the findings shed light on how motherhood myths justify the gender structure in countries promoting gender equality.

Teachers' legitimacy: Effects of justice perception and social comparison processes.

BACKGROUND: Teachers' legitimacy is central to school functioning. Teachers' justice, whether distributive or procedural, predicts teachers' legitimacy. AIMS: What is still do be found, and constitutes the goal of this paper, is whether unjust treatment by a teacher affects the legitimacy of the teacher differently when the student knows that the teacher was fair to a peer (comparative judgement) or when the student does not have that information (autonomous judgement). SAMPLES: A total of 79 high school students participated in Study 1; 75 high school students participated in Study 2. METHODS: Two experimental studies with a 2 justice valence (just, unjust) × 2 social comparison processes (autonomous judgements, comparative judgements) between-participants design were conducted. Study 1 addressed distributive justice and Study 2 addressed procedural justice. The dependent variable was teachers' legitimacy. RESULTS: In both studies, situations perceived as just led to higher teachers' legitimacy than situations perceived as unjust. For the distributive injustice conditions, teachers' legitimacy was equally lower for autonomous judgement and comparative judgement conditions. For procedural injustice, teachers' legitimacy was lower when the peer was treated justly and the participant was treated unfairly, compared with the condition when the participants did not know how the teacher treated the peer. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that teachers' injustice affects teachers' legitimacy, but it does it differently according to the social comparisons involved and the type of justice involved. Moreover, these results highlight that social comparisons are an important psychological process and, therefore, they should be taken into account in models of justice.

Intergroup time bias and racialized social relations.

Within the framework of intergroup relations, the authors analyzed the time people spent evaluating ingroup and outgroup members. They hypothesized that White participants take longer to evaluate White targets than Black targets. In four experiments, White participants were slower to form impressions of White than of Black people; that is, they showed an intergroup time bias (ITB). In Study 1 (N = 60), the ITB correlated with implicit prejudice and homogeneity. Study 2 (N = 60) showed that the ITB was independent of the type of trait in question (nonstereotypical vs. stereotypical). Study 3 (N = 100) demonstrated that ITB correlates with racism measured 3 months beforehand, is independent of motivation to control prejudice, and is not an epiphenomenon of homogeneity. In Study 4 (N = 40) participants not only showed the ITB in a racialized social context but also displayed it following a minimal group manipulation.

Stereotype content model across cultures: towards universal similarities and some differences.

The stereotype content model (SCM) proposes potentially universal principles of societal stereotypes and their relation to social structure. Here, the SCM reveals theoretically grounded, cross-cultural, cross-groups similarities and one difference across 10 non-US nations. Seven European (individualist) and three East Asian (collectivist) nations (N=1,028) support three hypothesized cross-cultural similarities: (a) perceived warmth and competence reliably differentiate societal group stereotypes; (b) many out-groups receive ambivalent stereotypes (high on one dimension; low on the other); and (c) high status groups stereotypically are competent, whereas competitive groups stereotypically lack warmth. Data uncover one consequential cross-cultural difference: (d) the more collectivist cultures do not locate reference groups (in-groups and societal prototype groups) in the most positive cluster (high-competence/high-warmth), unlike individualist cultures. This demonstrates out-group derogation without obvious reference-group favouritism. The SCM can serve as a pancultural tool for predicting group stereotypes from structural relations with other groups in society, and comparing across societies.

Is the attribution of cultural differences to minorities an expression of racial prejudice?

The social psychological literature considers two main perspectives on the study of perceived cultural differences between majorities and minorities: one proposes that perception of cultural differences is an antecedent of prejudice and another states that the attribution of cultural differences to minorities is already a hidden expression of racial prejudice. This paper offers further support to this latter perspective. One hundred and ninety-four participants answered a questionnaire measuring (1) general racist belief; (2) cultural differences attributed to Black people (hetero-ethnicization); (3) the asymmetric attribution of secondary and primary emotions to the in-group and to Black people (infra-humanization); (4) the asymmetric attribution of natural and cultural traits to in-group members and to Black people (ontologization); and (5) negative evaluation of this social category. The general racist belief scale was not anchored in a specific group and measured the belief in the inferiority of certain social groups or peoples based on biological or cultural factors. Relationships between the scales were analysed through a set of Structural Equation Models. According to the predictions, results showed that the attribution of cultural differences is a dimension of prejudice. Results also showed that attribution of cultural differences, negative evaluation of Black people, ontologization, and infra-humanization were different dimensions of a common latent factor that can be identified as racial prejudice; and that prejudice was predicted by general racist belief. Results are discussed in the light of the study of the impact of perceived cultural differences on intergroup relations and in the light of the "new racism" approaches.

Normas sociais e preconceito: o impacto da igualdade e da competição no preconceito automático contra os negros / Social norms and prejudice: the impact of egalitarianism and competition on the automatic prejudice against blacks

Com o objetivo de analisar o papel dos contextos de resposta no preconceito automático, realizamos três estudos. No primeiro estudo, investigamos os efeitos de dois contextos normativos (igualitário e meritocrático) sobre o preconceito automático contra os Negros. Verificou-se que o contexto meritocrático aumenta o preconceito dos participantes; mas o contexto igualitário não reduz o preconceito. No segundo estudo, investigamos que sentidos as pessoas atribuem à 'igualdade'. Dois sentidos principais foram encontrados: solidária e formal. Essas duas formas de igualdade foram utilizadas como priming no terceiro estudo, juntamente com contexto meritocrático. Os resultados indicaram que o contexto meritocrático torna os indivíduos mais preconceituosos. No entanto, o contexto da igualdade solidária anulou a ativação automática do preconceito contra os Negros. A igualdade formal situou-se numa posição intermediária entre os dois outros primes. Estes resultados são discutidos à luz das teorias sobre o papel das normas sociais nos processos inconscientes ou automáticos de preconceito(AU)

Normas sociais e preconceito: o impacto da igualdade e da competição no preconceito automático contra os negros / Social norms and prejudice: the impact of egalitarianism and competition on the automatic prejudice against blacks

Com o objetivo de analisar o papel dos contextos de resposta no preconceito automático, realizamos três estudos. No primeiro estudo, investigamos os efeitos de dois contextos normativos (igualitário e meritocrático) sobre o preconceito automático contra os Negros. Verificou-se que o contexto meritocrático aumenta o preconceito dos participantes; mas o contexto igualitário não reduz o preconceito. No segundo estudo, investigamos que sentidos as pessoas atribuem à "igualdade". Dois sentidos principais foram encontrados: solidária e formal. Essas duas formas de igualdade foram utilizadas como priming no terceiro estudo, juntamente com contexto meritocrático. Os resultados indicaram que o contexto meritocrático torna os indivíduos mais preconceituosos. No entanto, o contexto da igualdade solidária anulou a ativação automática do preconceito contra os Negros. A igualdade formal situou-se numa posição intermediária entre os dois outros primes. Estes resultados são discutidos à luz das teorias sobre o papel das normas sociais nos processos inconscientes ou automáticos de preconceito.

The present studies examined the effects of social norms on the automatic prejudice against Black people. Study 1 assessed the effects of egalitarianism and competitive meritocracy on automatic racial prejudice. The results showed that the competitive meritocracy context increases prejudice. But, the egalitarian context didn't reduce the prejudice. Study 2 investigated the meanings that people assign to "equality". A content analysis denoted two main social representations: equality in the law (Rights and Duties) and equality as solidarity in relationships (fraternity, respect to differences, solidarity, etc.). We named the first representation of equality as "Formal Egalitarianism" and the second as "Solidarity Egalitarianism". Those two forms of equality were used as priming in the third study, together with the competitive meritocracy norm. Results indicated that the competitive meritocracy context increased prejudiced responses. However, the solidarity egalitarianism context controlled the automatic prejudice against Blacks. Formal egalitarianism has no effect on the control of prejudice. These results support the hypothesis concerning the impact of social normative contexts on prejudice activation.

Risk perception and technological development at a societal level.

This article tests the hypothesis that the exposure to the threat to societies posed by the introduction of new technologies is associated with a normalization of risk perception. Data collected in 2000 by the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) on environmental issues were used to explore this hypothesis. Representative samples from 25 countries were employed to assess the national levels of perceived threat to the environment associated with a series of technologies and activities. These values were correlated with economic indicators (mainly from the World Bank) of the diffusion of each of the technologies or activities in each country. Results indicate a negative association of risk perception with the level of technological prevalence (societal normalization effect) and a positive association with the rate of growth of the technology (societal sensitivity effect). These results indicate that the most acute levels of perceived environmental risk are found in those countries where the level of technological prevalence is low but where there has recently been substantial technological development. Environmental awareness is a mediator of the relationship between risk perception and the indices of technological diffusion. This result means that: (1) societal normalization of risk is not a direct consequence of prevalence of the technology, but is driven by awareness of technological development and that (2) societal sensitivity to risk is associated with lower levels of environmental awareness.

A cor do sucesso: efeitos da performance social e econômica no branqueamento e na infra-humanização dos negros no Brasil / The colour of success: effects of the social and economical performance on the whitening and on the infra-humanization of blacks in Brazil

Este estudo examina os efeitos da cor da pele e da performance social dos grupos no branqueamento e na infra-humanização. Os dados deste estudo foram coletados em três capitais do Brasil, em três regiões diferentes. As principais hipóteses são: a) os Negros serão mais infra-humanizados do que os Brancos; b) os grupos que fracassam socialmente serão mais infra-humanizados do que os grupos que obtêm sucesso; e c) os grupos com sucesso deverão ser percebidos como mais brancos do que os que fracassam. Os resultados, obtidos junto a 175 estudantes universitários brancos, de três universidades privadas, indicam que as hipóteses são parcialmente confirmadas. Os grupos que fracassam são infra-humanizados quando comparados aos que obtêm sucesso e os grupos que obtêm sucesso são branqueados e os que fracassam enegrecidos, ao nível da percepção subjetiva da cor da pele. No entanto, a infra-humanização dos negros acontece com a mediação do branqueamento. Esses resultados são discutidos à luz das novas teorias psicossociais sobre o racismo (AU)

A cor do sucesso: efeitos da performance social e econômica no branqueamento e na infra-humanização dos negros no Brasil / The colour of success: effects of the social and economical performance on the whitening and on the infra-humanization of blacks in Brazil

Este estudo examina os efeitos da cor da pele e da performance social dos grupos no branqueamento e na infra-humanização. Os dados deste estudo foram coletados em três capitais do Brasil, em três regiões diferentes. As principais hipóteses são: a) os Negros serão mais infra-humanizados do que os Brancos; b) os grupos que fracassam socialmente serão mais infra-humanizados do que os grupos que obtêm sucesso; e c) os grupos com sucesso deverão ser percebidos como mais brancos do que os que fracassam. Os resultados, obtidos junto a 175 estudantes universitários brancos, de três universidades privadas, indicam que as hipóteses são parcialmente confirmadas. Os grupos que fracassam são infra-humanizados quando comparados aos que obtêm sucesso e os grupos que obtêm sucesso são branqueados e os que fracassam enegrecidos, ao nível da percepção subjetiva da cor da pele. No entanto, a infra-humanização dos negros acontece com a mediação do branqueamento. Esses resultados são discutidos à luz das novas teorias psicossociais sobre o racismo

As novas formas de expressão do preconceito e do racismo / The new forms of expression of prejudice and racism

Recentemente tem-se verificado uma condenação social aberta às formas mais tradicionais e flagrantes de racismo. Em conseqüência, em várias partes do mundo, alguns estudos utilizando metodologias tradicionais de coleta de dados têm demonstrado que os estereótipos negativos associados aos negros têm diminuído. Todavia, novas e mais sofisticadas formas de expressão do preconceito e do racismo têm surgido, corporificando muitos comportamentos cotidianos de discriminação, quer ao nível institucional, quer ao nível interpessoal. Estas novas formas de expressão do preconceito e do racismo produzem na psicologia social várias teorizações. Temos as teorias do racismo moderno, do racismo simbólico, do racismo aversivo, do racismo ambivalente, do preconceito sutil e do racismo cordial, dentre outras. Neste trabalho procuramos analisar cada uma das novas teorias sobre o preconceito e sobre o racismo, e discorremos sobre o suporte empírico que fundamenta cada uma dessas teorias (AU)