Probiotic Prato cheese attenuates cigarette smoke-induced injuries in mice.

The efficacy of probiotic Prato cheese against the inflammatory and oxidative damage in mice organs induced by cigarette smoke exposure was investigated. Forty C57BL/6 male mice were assigned to four groups: (CS) exposed to cigarette smoke and fed regular chow; (CS + C) exposed to cigarette smoke and fed daily conventional cheese ad libitum; (CS + PC) exposed to cigarette smoke and fed daily probiotic (Lactobacillus casei-01) cheese ad libitum; and a control group (C) exposed to ambient smoke-free air and fed regular chow. Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), blood, gut and liver homogenates were used for biochemical assays. The (CS + PC) group exhibited fewer BAL leukocytes, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and BAL and gut lipid peroxidation than the (CS) and (CS + C) groups, which had findings similar to the (C) group. Probiotic cheese consumption did not change the red blood cell count, but lower lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels in plasma, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and peroxynitrite expression were observed compared to the (CS) and (CS + C) groups, with findings similar to the (C) group. These results suggest that probiotic Prato cheese consumption reduced oxidative stress in the lungs, gut, and liver.

Oxidative imbalance in mice intoxicated by microcystin-LR can be minimized.

Microcystins-LR (MC-LR) is a cyanotoxin produced by cyanobacteria. We evaluated the antioxidant potential of LASSBio-596 (LB-596, inhibitor of phosphodiesterases 4 and 5), per os, and biochemical markers involved in lung and liver injury induced by exposure to sublethal dose of MC-LR. Fifty male Swiss mice received an intraperitoneal injection of 60 µL of saline (CTRL group, n = 20) or a sublethal dose of MC-LR (40 µg/kg, TOX group, n = 20). After 6 h the animals received either saline (TOX and CTRL groups) or LB-596 (50 mg/kg, TOX + LASS group, n = 10) by gavage. At 6 h after exposure, respiratory mechanics was evaluated in 10 CTRL and 10 TOX mice: there was a significant increase of all lung mechanics parameters (static elastance, viscoelastic component of elastance and lung resistive and viscoelastic/inhomogeneous pressures) in TOX compared to CTRL. 8 h after saline or MC-LR administration, i.e., 2 h after treatment with LB-596, blood serum levels of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase, activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and content of malondialdehyde and carbonyl in lung and liver, NADPH oxidase 2 and 4 mRNA expressions, dual oxidase enzyme activity and H2O2 generation were analyzed in lung homogenates. All parameters were significantly higher in TOX than in the other groups. There was no significant difference between CTRL and TOX + LASS. MC-LR deteriorated lung and liver functions and induced redox imbalance in them, which was prevented by oral administration of LB-596.

2,2'-Azobis (2-Amidinopropane) Dihydrochloride Is a Useful Tool to Impair Lung Function in Rats.

Recently, several studies have reported that respiratory disease may be associated with an increased production of free radicals. In this context, 2,2'-azobis (2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH) is a free radical-generating compound widely used to mimic the oxidative stress state. We aimed to investigate whether AAPH can generate lung functional, inflammatory, histological and biochemical impairments in the lung. Wistar rats were divided into five groups and instilled with saline solution (714 µL/kg, CTRL group) or different amounts of AAPH (25, 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg, 714 µL/kg, AAPH groups). Seventy-two hours later the animals were anesthetized, paralyzed, intubated and static elastance (Est), viscoelastic component of elastance (ΔE), resistive (ΔP1) and viscoelastic (ΔP2) pressures were measured. Oxidative damage, inflammatory markers and lung morphometry were analyzed. ΔP1 and Est were significantly higher in AAPH100 and AAPH200 than in the other groups. The bronchoconstriction indexes were larger in AAPH groups than in CTRL. The area occupied by collagen and elastic fibers, polymorpho- and mononuclear cells, malondialdehyde and carbonyl groups levels were significantly higher in AAPH200 than in CTRL. In comparison to CTRL, AAPH200 showed significant decrease and increase in the activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase, respectively. AAPH augmented the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1ß, IL-6 e TNF-α. Hence, exposure to AAPH caused significant inflammatory alterations and redox imbalance accompanied by altered lung mechanics and histology. Furthermore, we disclosed that exposure to AAPH may represent a useful in vivo tool to trigger lung lesions.

Respiratory toxicity of repeated exposure to particles produced by traffic and sugar cane burning.

We compared the toxicity of subchronic exposure to equivalent masses of particles from sugar cane burning and traffic. BALB/c mice received 3 intranasal instillations/week during 1, 2 or 4 weeks of either distilled water (C1, C2, C4) or particles (15µg) from traffic (UP1, UP2, UP4) or biomass burning (BP1, BP2, BP4). Lung mechanics, histology and oxidative stress were analyzed 24h after the last instillation. In all instances UP and BP groups presented worse pulmonary elastance, airway and tissue resistance, alveolar collapse, bronchoconstriction and macrophage influx into the lungs than controls. UP4, BP2 and BP4 presented more alveolar collapse than UP1 and BP1, respectively. UP and BP had worse bronchial and alveolar lesion scores than their controls; BP4 had greater bronchial lesion scores than UP4. Catalase was higher in UP4 and BP4 than in C4. In conclusion, biomass particles were more toxic than those from traffic after repeated exposures.

Undernutrition affects cell survival, oxidative stress, Ca2+ handling and signaling pathways in vas deferens, crippling reproductive capacity.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this work was to investigate the mechanisms by which chronic malnutrition (CM) affects vas deferens function, leading to compromised reproductive capacity. Previous studies have shown that maternal malnutrition affects the reproductive tracts of adult male offspring. However, little is known about the effects of CM, a widespread life-long condition that persists from conception throughout growth to adult life. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Young adult male rats, which were chronically malnourished from weaning, presented decreased total and haploid cells in the vas deferens, hypertrophy of the muscle layer in the epididymal portion of the vas deferens and intense atrophy of the muscular coat in its prostatic portion. At a molecular level, the vas deferens tissue of CM rats exhibited a huge rise in lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation, evidence of an accentuated increase in local reactive oxygen species levels. The kinetics of plasma membrane Ca(2+)-ATPase activity and its kinase-mediated phosphorylation by PKA and PKC in the vas deferens revealed malnutrition-induced modifications in velocity, Ca(2+) affinity and regulation of Ca(2+) handling proteins. The severely crippled content of the 12-kDa FK506 binding protein, which controls passive Ca(2+) release from the sarco(endo) plasmic reticulum, revealed another target of malnutrition related to intracellular Ca(2+) handling, with a potential effect on forward propulsion of sperm cells. As a possible compensatory response, malnutrition led to enhanced sarco(endo) plasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase activity, possibly caused by stimulatory PKA-mediated phosphorylation. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The functional correlates of these cellular and molecular hallmarks of chronic malnutrition on the vas deferens were an accentuated reduction in fertility and fecundity.

Time course of inflammation, oxidative stress and tissue damage induced by hyperoxia in mouse lungs.

In this study our aim was to investigate the time courses of inflammation, oxidative stress and tissue damage after hyperoxia in the mouse lung. Groups of BALB/c mice were exposed to 100% oxygen in a chamber for 12, 24 or 48 h. The controls were subjected to normoxia. The results showed that IL-6 increased progressively after 12 (P < 0.001) and 24 h (P < 0.001) of hyperoxia with a reduction at 48 h (P < 0.01), whereas TNF-α increased after 24 (P < 0.001) and 48 h (P < 0.001). The number of macrophages increased after 24 h (P < 0.001), whereas the number of neutrophils increased after 24 h (P < 0.01) and 48 h (P < 0.001). Superoxide dismutase activity decreased in all groups exposed to hyperoxia (P < 0.01). Catalase activity increased only at 48 h (P < 0.001). The reduced glutathione/oxidized glutathione ratio decreased after 12 h (P < 0.01) and 24 h (P < 0.05). Histological evidence of lung injury was observed at 24 and 48 h. This study shows that hyperoxia initially causes an inflammatory response at 12 h, resulting in inflammation associated with the oxidative response at 24 h and culminating in histological damage at 48 h. Knowledge of the time course of inflammation and oxidative stress prior to histological evidence of acute lung injury can improve the safety of oxygen therapy in patients.

Eugenol attenuates pulmonary damage induced by diesel exhaust particles.

Environmentally relevant doses of inhaled diesel particles elicit pulmonary inflammation and impair lung mechanics. Eugenol, a methoxyphenol component of clove oil, presents in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Our aim was to examine a possible protective role of eugenol against lung injuries induced by diesel particles. Male BALB/c mice were divided into four groups. Mice received saline (10 µl in; CTRL group) or 15 µg of diesel particles DEP (15 µg in; DIE and DEUG groups). After 1 h, mice received saline (10 µl; CTRL and DIE groups) or eugenol (164 mg/kg; EUG and DEUG group) by gavage. Twenty-four hours after gavage, pulmonary resistive (ΔP1), viscoelastic (ΔP2) and total (ΔPtot) pressures, static elastance (Est), and viscoelastic component of elastance (ΔE) were measured. We also determined the fraction areas of normal and collapsed alveoli, amounts of polymorpho- (PMN) and mononuclear cells in lung parenchyma, apoptosis, and oxidative stress. Est, ΔP2, ΔPtot, and ΔE were significantly higher in the DIE than in the other groups. DIE also showed significantly more PMN, airspace collapse, and apoptosis than the other groups. However, no beneficial effect on lipid peroxidation was observed in DEUG group. In conclusion, eugenol avoided changes in lung mechanics, pulmonary inflammation, and alveolar collapse elicited by diesel particles. It attenuated the activation signal of caspase-3 by DEP, but apoptosis evaluated by TUNEL was avoided. Finally, it could not avoid oxidative stress as indicated by malondialdehyde.

Effects of oleanolic acid on pulmonary morphofunctional and biochemical variables in experimental acute lung injury.

We analysed the effects of oleanolic acid (OA) on lung mechanics and histology and its possible mechanisms of action in experimental acute lung injury (ALI). BALB/c mice were randomly divided into Control (saline, ip) and ALI (paraquat, 25 mg/kg, ip) groups. At 1 h, both groups were treated with saline (SAL, 50 µl ip), OA (10 mg/kg ip), or dexamethasone (DEXA, 1 mg/kg ip). At 24 h, lung static elastance, viscoelastic pressure, and alveolar collapse reduced more after OA compared to DEXA administration. Tumour necrosis factor-α, macrophage migration inhibitory factor, interleukin-6, interferon-γ, and transforming growth factor-ß mRNA expressions in lung tissue diminished similarly after OA or DEXA. Conversely, only OA avoided reactive oxygen species generation and yielded a significant decrease in nitrite concentration. OA and DEXA restored the reduced glutathione/oxidized glutathione ratio and catalase activity while increasing glutathione peroxidase induced by paraquat. In conclusion, OA improved lung morphofunction by modulating the release of inflammatory mediators and oxidative stress.

LASSBio 596 per os avoids pulmonary and hepatic inflammation induced by microcystin-LR.

Cyanobacterial blooms that generate microcystins (MCYSTs) are increasingly recognized as an important health problem in aquatic ecosystems. We have previously reported the impairment of pulmonary structure and function by microcystin-LR (MCYST-LR) exposure as well as the pulmonary improvement by intraperitoneally injected (i.p.) LASSBio 596. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the usefulness of LASSBio 596 per os on the treatment of pulmonary and hepatic injuries induced by MCYST-LR. Swiss mice received an intraperitoneal injection of 40 µl of saline (CTRL) or a sub-lethal dose of MCYST-LR (40 µg/kg). After 6 h the animals received either saline (TOX and CTRL groups) or LASSBio 596 (50 mg/kg, LASS group) by gavage. Eight hours after the first instillation, lung impedance (static elastance, elastic component of viscoelasticity and resistive, viscoelastic and total pressures) was determined by the end-inflation occlusion method. Left lung and liver were prepared for histology. In lung and hepatic homogenates MCYST-LR, TNF-α, IL-1ß and IL-6 were determined by ELISA. LASSBio 596 per os (LASS mice) kept all lung mechanical parameters, polymorphonuclear (PMN) cells, pro-inflammatory mediators, and alveolar collapse similar to control mice (CTRL), whereas in TOX these findings were higher than CTRL. Likewise, liver structural deterioration (hepatocytes inflammation, necrosis and steatosis) and inflammatory process (high levels of pro-inflammatory mediators) were less evident in the LASS than TOX group. LASS and CTRL did not differ in any parameters studied. In conclusion, orally administered LASSBio 596 prevented lung and hepatic inflammation and completely blocked pulmonary functional and morphological changes induced by MCYST-LR.

Can LASSBio 596 and dexamethasone treat acute lung and liver inflammation induced by microcystin-LR?

The treatment of microcystin-LR (MCYST-LR)-induced lung inflammation has never been reported. Hence, LASSBio 596, an anti-inflammatory drug candidate, designed as symbiotic agent that modulates TNF-alpha levels and inhibits phosphodiesterase types 4 and 5, or dexamethasone were tested in this condition. Swiss mice were intraperitoneally (i.p.) injected with 60 microl of saline (CTRL) or a sub-lethal dose of MCYST-LR (40 micrg/kg). 6 h later they were treated (i.p.) with saline (TOX), LASSBio 596 (10 mg/kg, L596), or dexamethasone (1 mg/kg, 0.1 mL, DEXA). 8 h after MCYST-LR injection, pulmonary mechanics were determined, and lungs and livers prepared for histopathology, biochemical analysis and quantification of MCYST-LR. TOX showed significantly higher lung impedance than CTRL and L596, which were similar. DEXA could only partially block the mechanical alterations. In both TOX and DEXA alveolar collapse and inflammatory cell influx were higher than in CTRL and L596, being LASSBio 596 more effective than dexamethasone. TOX showed oxidative stress that was not present in CTRL and L596, while DEXA was partially efficient. MCYST-LR was detected in the livers of all mice receiving MCYST-LR and no recovery was apparent. In conclusion, LASSBio 596 was more efficient than dexamethasone in reducing the pulmonary functional impairment induced by MCYST-LR.

Antioxidant treatment with tempol and apocynin prevents endothelial dysfunction and development of renovascular hypertension.

BACKGROUND: Two-kidney-one-clip (2K-1C) rats develop renovascular hypertension associated with endothelial dysfunction and elevated levels of oxidative stress. The role of oxidative damage is unknown in vascular dysfunction coupled with 2K-1C hypertension. The aims of this study were to evaluate the effects of chronic treatment with a superoxide dismutase (SOD) mimetic (tempol) and an inhibitor of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-dependent oxidase (apocynin) on the development of hypertension, endothelial dysfunction, and oxidative damage in 2K-1C rats. METHODS: 2K-1C rats and sham-operated rats were treated with tempol or apocynin for 40 days, while the corresponding nontreated groups received tap water. Blood pressure (BP), mesenteric arterial reactivity, plasma and mesentery oxidative damage, mesenteric protein expression, and antioxidant activities were compared among the four groups. RESULTS: Chronic treatment with tempol (1 mmol/l) or apocynin (33 microg/kg/day) impaired the development of hypertension in 2K-1C rats and did not change the BP in control animals. The reduction in vasodilatory effect induced by acetylcholine (ACh) in the mesenteric arterial beds (MABs) of 2K-1C rats was restored by tempol and apocynin. Plasma and mesentery levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) were higher in 2K-1C rats, and these levels were significantly reduced by the administration of tempol and apocynin. Mesenteric SOD activity and expression were higher in 2K-1C rats than in the controls, and treatment with tempol resulted in a reduction in SOD activity. CONCLUSIONS: The data suggest that a compromised mechanism of antioxidant defense and an increase in oxidative damage contribute to the development of hypertension and associated vascular dysfunction in 2K-1C rats, and that tempol and apocynin prevent these effects.

The effects of physical exercise on the cigarette smoke-induced pulmonary oxidative response.

Studies have shown that the oxidative power of cigarettes is related to the pathogenesis of several pulmonary diseases and that regular physical exercise contributes significantly to reducing the deleterious effects of cigarettes. The objective of the present study was to investigate the therapeutic effects of physical exercise on histological and oxidative stress markers in animals exposed to cigarette smoke. Thirty-six male, eight-week-old C57BL-6 mice were divided into four groups (n = 9 for each group): control, exercise, cigarette smoke, and cigarette smoke plus exercise. The cigarette smoke (CS) groups were exposed to cigarette smoke 3 times/day (4 cigarettes/session) for 60 consecutive days. The exercise groups were submitted to swimming physical training 5 days/week for eight weeks. Forty-eight hours after the last exercise and cigarette exposure, the animals were sacrificed using cervical traction. The right lung was removed, processed, and stored for future analysis. In addition to the analysis of collagen content (hydroxyproline), oxidant production (anion superoxide), antioxidant enzyme activity (SOD and CAT), and lipid and protein oxidative damage (TBARS and Carbonylation), histological and morphological studies were performed. The results revealed that the animals exposed to cigarette smoke showed enlargement and destruction of the alveolar septum and increases in the numbers of macrophages and neutrophils, as well as in the amount of collagen. Our results also showed a decrease in the volume density of elastic fibers and an increase in the volume density of airspaces. However, physical exercise partially improved these markers. Additionally, physical exercise decreased oxidant production and increased the activity of the enzymatic antioxidant defense system, but did not reverse lipid and protein oxidative damage induced by cigarette smoke. These results suggest that physical training partially improves histological and oxidative stress parameters in the lungs of animals chronically exposed to cigarette smoke and that other therapies can contribute to potentiate these effects.

ATLa, an aspirin-triggered lipoxin A4 synthetic analog, prevents the inflammatory and fibrotic effects of bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis.

Despite an increase in the knowledge of mechanisms and mediators involved in pulmonary fibrosis, there are no successful therapeutics available. Lipoxins (LX) and their 15-epimers, aspirin-triggered LX (ATL), are endogenously produced eicosanoids with potent anti-inflammatory and proresolution effects. To date, few studies have been performed regarding their effect on pulmonary fibrosis. In the present study, using C57BL/6 mice, we report that bleomycin (BLM)-induced lung fibrosis was prevented by the concomitant treatment with an ATL synthetic analog, ATLa, which reduced inflammation and matrix deposition. ATLa inhibited BLM-induced leukocyte accumulation and alveolar collapse as evaluated by histology and morphometrical analysis. Moreover, Sirius red staining and lung hydroxyproline content showed an increased collagen deposition in mice receiving BLM alone that was decreased upon treatment with the analog. These effects resulted in benefits to pulmonary mechanics, as ATLa brought to normal levels both lung resistance and compliance. Furthermore, the analog improved mouse survival, suggesting an important role for the LX pathway in the control of disease establishment and progression. One possible mechanism by which ATLa restrained fibrosis was suggested by the finding that BLM-induced myofibroblast accumulation/differentiation in the lung parenchyma was also reduced by both simultaneous and posttreatment with the analog (alpha-actin immunohistochemistry). Interestingly, ATLa posttreatment (4 days after BLM) showed similar inhibitory effects on inflammation and matrix deposition, besides the TGF-beta level reduction in the lung, reinforcing an antifibrotic effect. In conclusion, our findings show that LX and ATL can be considered as promising therapeutic approaches to lung fibrotic diseases.

Aspirin and indomethacin reduce lung inflammation of mice exposed to cigarette smoke.

Neutrophil accumulation response to cigarette smoke (CS) in humans and animal models is believed to play an important role in pathogenesis of many tobacco-related lung diseases. Here we evaluated the lung anti-inflammatory effect of aspirin and indomethacin in mice exposed to CS. C57BL/6 mice were exposed to four cigarettes per day during 4 days and were treated i.p. with aspirin or indomethacin, administered each day 1h before CS exposure. Twenty four hours after the last exposure, cells and inflammatory mediators were assessed in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid and the lungs used for evaluation of lipid peroxidation, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation and nuclear transcription factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) activation. Exposure to CS resulted in a marked lung neutrophilia. Moreover, the levels of oxidative stress-related lipid peroxidation, prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)), interleukin 1beta (IL-1beta), monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1), and activated NF-kappaB and p38 MAPK were greatly increased in CS group. Aspirin or indomethacin treatment led to a significant reduction of neutrophil influx, but only aspirin resulted in dramatic decrease of inflammatory mediators. Moreover, both drugs reduced lung p38 MAPK and NF-kappaB activation induced by CS. These results demonstrate that short-term CS exposure has profound airway inflammatory effects counteracted by the anti-inflammatory agents aspirin and indomethacin, probably through COX-dependent and -independent mechanisms.

Attenuation of bleomycin-induced lung injury and oxidative stress by N-acetylcysteine plus deferoxamine.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play an important role in the pathogenesis of pulmonary injury and antioxidant therapy may be useful with impaired oxidative defense mechanism. This study examines the effect of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and deferoxamine (DFX) on inflammatory indicators and oxidative stress in the lungs of mice exposed to bleomycin (BLM). The animals received endotracheally a single dose of BLM (2.5 U/kg body weight dissolved in 0.25 ml of 0.9% NaCl) or saline (0.9% NaCl) and were divided into eight groups (n=8): saline; BLM; saline+NAC; BLM+NAC; saline+DFX; BLM+DFX; saline+NAC+DFX; BLM+NAC+DFX. Treatments with NAC (20mg/kg) or DFX (30 mg/kg) were administered for 60 days after BLM exposure. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity and total cell count, neutrophil and protein concentration were determined in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). Lipid peroxidation thiobarbituric acid-reactive species (TBARS), oxidative protein damage (carbonyl contents), and catalase and superoxide dismutase activities were determined in the lung tissue. BLM administration resulted in lung lesion as determinated lung histology, which is almost completely prevented by NAC plus DFX. The results of total cell counts and neutrophils and LDH increased after BLM exposure and were reduced with NAC. DFX and NAC plus DFX also caused a significant decrease of LDH activity. The increased malondialdehyde equivalents and carbonyl contents in lung tissue produced by BLM were also prevented by NAC plus DFX. However, the isolated use of NAC increased lipid peroxidation. SOD activity increased after BLM exposure only in the group treated with DFX and catalase activity not was altered in the presence of BLM. Data presented here indicates that the isolated use of NAC had limited effects on BLM-induced pulmonary oxidative stress in mice. The use of DFX improves the defense response and in association with NAC may be a good alternative in the treatment or prevention of diseases that have ROS and iron involved in their pathogenesis.

Effects of cigarette smoke in mice wound healing is strain dependent.

It has been clinically and experimentally shown that cigarette smokers suffer from impaired wound healing, but the mechanisms that lead to the alterations are not well understood. The aim of this study was to investigate if the effects of cigarette smoke exposure on excisional cutaneous wound healing are different depending on the strain (Swiss, BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice) studied. Male mice were exposed to smoke of nine whole cigarettes per day, 3 times/day, daily, for 10 days. In the 11th day a full-thickness excisional wound was performed. Control group was sham-exposed and also had a full-thickness excisional wound. The cigarette smoke exposure protocol was performed until euthanasia. Animals were euthanatized 14 days after wounding. Wound contraction was evaluated 7 and 14 days after lesion. Sections were stained with hematoxylin-eosin, Sirius red or toluidine blue and immunostained for alpha-smooth muscle actin. Smoke exposed animals presented delay in wound contraction, in fibroblastic and inflammatory cells recruitment and in myofibroblastic differentiation; those alterations were strain dependent. Cigarette smoke exposure also affected mast cells recruitment and neoepidermis thickness. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that the effects of cigarette smoke in mice cutaneous wound healing are related to mice strain studied.