The relationship between hepatopulmonary syndrome and altitude.

BACKGROUND: In a previous small retrospective study, the authors reported that hepatopulmonary syndrome was less common among liver transplant candidates at high-altitude centres compared with low-altitude centres. OBJECTIVE: To further explore the relationship between hepatopulmonary syndrome and altitude of residence in a larger patient cohort. METHODS: A cohort of 65,264 liver transplant candidates in the Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network liver database between 1988 and 2006 was analyzed. Hepatopulmonary syndrome diagnosis was determined during a comprehensive evaluation at a liver transplant centre by physicians who were experienced in the diagnosis and treatment of hepatopulmonary syndrome. The altitude of residence was determined for each patient by assigning the mean altitude of the zip code of residence at the time of entry on the wait list. Mean zip code elevation was calculated using the National Elevation Dataset of the United States Geological Survey, which provides exact elevation measurements across the entire country. RESULTS: Hepatopulmonary syndrome was significantly less common at higher resident altitudes (P=0.015). After adjusting for age, sex and Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score, there was a 46% decrease in the odds of hepatopulmonary syndrome with every increase of 1000 m of resident elevation (OR 0.54 [95% CI 0.33 to 0.89]). CONCLUSION: There was a negative association between altitude and hepatopulmonary syndrome. One plausible explanation is that the lower ambient oxygen found at higher elevation leads to pulmonary vasoconstriction, which mitigates the primary physiological lesion of hepatopulmonary syndrome, namely, pulmonary vasodilation.

Suicides in urban and rural counties in the United States, 2006-2008.

BACKGROUND: Suicide rates are higher in rural areas. It has been hypothesized that inadequate access to care may play a role, but studies examining individual decedent characteristics are lacking. AIMS: We sought to characterize the demographic, socioeconomic, and mental health features of individual suicide decedents by urban-rural residence status. METHOD: We analyzed suicides in 16 states using 2006-2008 data from the National Violent Death Reporting System and examined associations between decedent residence type and suicide variables with separate logistic regressions adjusted for age, sex, race, and ethnicity. RESULTS: Of 17,504 analyzed suicides, 78% were in urban, 15% in rural adjacent, and 8% in rural nonadjacent locations. Rural decedents were less likely than urban decedents to have a mental health diagnosis or mental health care, although the prevalence of depressed moods appeared similar. Most suicides were by firearm, and rural decedents were more likely than urban decedents to have used a firearm. CONCLUSION: Rural decedents were less likely to be receiving mental health care and more likely to use firearms to commit suicide. A better understanding of geographic patterns of suicide may aid prevention efforts.

Employee perception of a mandated helmet policy at Vail Resorts.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to measure support for a mandated helmet policy among resort employees along with the impact of such a policy on job satisfaction, and additionally, to measure the prevalence of barriers to helmet use among this population. METHODS: In all, 728 Vail Resort employees were surveyed regarding their opinions on the helmet policy and on general helmet use. RESULTS: The majority of the 728 employees surveyed (66.5%; 95% CI: 63% to 70%) agreed with the helmet policy. Only 18% (95% CI: 16% to 21%) reported a negative effect on job satisfaction. Older employees (>25 years old) were more likely to disagree with the policy (odds ratio [OR] 3.1; 95% CI: 2.2 to 4.3) and report a negative effect on job satisfaction (OR 4.8; 95% CI: 3.0 to 7.6). Skiers were much more likely than snowboarders to report a negative effect on job satisfaction (OR 9.8; 95% CI: 5.2 to 18.1). Among resort employees, ski patrollers were more likely to disagree with the mandate (OR 9.8; 95% CI: 6.8 to 13.9) and report a negative effect on job satisfaction (OR 13.2; 95% CI: 8.3 to 21.). Forty-three percent of participants (95% CI: 39% to 46%) agreed with the statement that wearing a helmet encourages reckless behavior whereas 51.0% (95% CI: 47% to 54%) believed that wearing a helmet limits sensory perception. CONCLUSIONS: A mandatory helmet use policy was supported by most resort employees. However, ski patrollers and older, more experienced employees were more likely to report a negative effect on job satisfaction. Barriers to helmet use continue to persist in the ski industry and represent a target for further educational efforts.

Occupation and suicide: Colorado, 2004-2006.

BACKGROUND: Occupation has been identified as a risk factor for suicide. Changes in work environments over time suggest occupations at high risk of suicide may also change. Therefore, periodic examination of suicide by occupation is warranted. The purpose of this article is to describe suicide rates by occupation, sex, and means used in Colorado for the period 2004-2006. METHODS: To provide information useful in designing suicide prevention programs, the methods used in suicide across occupational groups also are examined. Data from the Colorado Violent Death Reporting System (COVDRS) were obtained for suicides that occurred between 2004 and 2006. Denominators to calculate rates by age, sex, and race used are from the 2000 US Census of the Population data. RESULTS: Men had higher suicide rates than women in all occupation categories except computers and mathematics. Among men, those in farming, fishing, and forestry (475.6 per 100,000) had the highest age-adjusted suicide rates. Among women, workers with the highest suicide rates were in construction and extraction (134.3 per 100,000). The examination of lethal means showed that workers in farming, fishing, and forestry had higher rates of suicide by firearms (50.18 per 100,000) compared with other workers. Healthcare practitioners and technicians had the highest rate of suicide by poisoning (14.25 per 100,000). Workers involved in construction and extraction (26.43 per 100,000) had higher rates of suicide by hanging, suffocation, or strangling. CONCLUSIONS: Significant differences in means of suicide were seen by occupation, which could guide future suicide prevention interventions that may decrease work-related suicide risks.

Student perspectives on the diversity climate at a U.S. medical school: the need for a broader definition of diversity.

BACKGROUND: Medical schools frequently experience challenges related to diversity and inclusiveness. The authors conducted this study to assess, from a student body's perspective, the climate at one medical school with respect to diversity, inclusiveness and cross-cultural understanding. METHODS: In 2008 students in the doctor of medicine (MD), physical therapy (PT) and physician assistant programs at a public medical school were asked to complete a diversity climate survey consisting of 24 Likert-scale, short-answer and open-ended questions. Questions were designed to measure student experiences and attitudes in three domains: the general diversity environment and culture; witnessed negative speech or behaviors; and diversity and the learning environment. Students were also asked to comment on the effectiveness of strategies aimed at promoting diversity, including diversity and sensitivity training, pipeline programs, student scholarships and other interventions. Survey responses were summarized using proportions and 95 percent confidence intervals (95% CI), as well as inductive content analysis. RESULTS: Of 852 eligible students, 261 (31%) participated in the survey. Most participants agreed that the school of medicine (SOM) campus is friendly (90%, 95% CI 86 to 93) and welcoming to minority groups (82%, 95% CI 77 to 86). Ninety percent (95% CI 86 to 93) found educational value in a diverse faculty and student body. However, only 37 percent (95% CI 30 to 42) believed the medical school is diverse. Many survey participants reported they have witnessed other students or residents make disparaging remarks or exhibit offensive behaviors toward minority groups, most often targeting persons with strong religious beliefs (43%, 95% CI 37 to 49), low socioeconomic status (35%, 95% CI 28 to 40), non-English speakers (34%, 95% CI 28 to 40), women (30%, 95% CI 25 to 36), racial or ethnic minorities (28%, 95% CI 23 to 34), or gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgendered (GLBT) individuals (25%, 95% CI 20 to 30). Students witnessed similar disparaging or offensive behavior by faculty members toward persons with strong religious beliefs (18%, 95% CI 14 to 24), persons of low socioeconomic status (12%, 95% CI 9 to 17), non-English speakers (10%, 95% CI 6 to 14), women (18%, 95% CI 14 to 24), racial or ethnic minorities (12%, 95% CI 8 to 16) and GLBT individuals (7%, 95% CI 4 to 11). Students' open-ended comments reinforced the finding that persons holding strong religious beliefs or conservative values were the most common targets of disparaging or offensive behavior. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that medical students believe that diversity and a climate of inclusiveness and respect are important to a medical school's educational and clinical care missions. However, according to these students, the institution must embrace a broader definition of diversity, such that all minority groups are valued, including individuals with conservative viewpoints or strong religious beliefs, the poor and uninsured, GLBT individuals, women and non-English speakers.

Potential barriers associated with increased prevalence of perforated appendicitis in Colorado's pediatric Medicaid population.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to identify barriers and delays in care associated with the increased prevalence of perforated appendicitis among Colorado's pediatric Medicaid population. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study of all cases of pediatric appendicitis, which had Colorado Medicaid from 2007 to 2008 using descriptive statistics, bivariate analysis, and multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: Of the 479 appendicitis cases, 42.6% were perforated. In both the bivariate and multivariate analysis, perforated cases did not significantly differ from nonperforated cases with respect to sex, rurality of residence, or race with the exception of black race in the multivariate model. Perforated cases were more likely to be younger, have been enrolled in Medicaid for less than 6 months, have seen a provider within 5 days of their diagnosis, and have been transferred to another hospital for treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The high prevalence of perforated appendicitis in Colorado children with Medicaid coverage is not associated with race or physical proximity to care but may be associated with the duration of Medicaid coverage, which highlights the importance of establishing medical homes to direct patients on where and how to seek care.

Observational studies of patients in the emergency department: a comparison of 4 sampling methods.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: We evaluate the ability of 4 sampling methods to generate representative samples of the emergency department (ED) population. METHODS: We analyzed the electronic records of 21,662 consecutive patient visits at an urban, academic ED. From this population, we simulated different models of study recruitment in the ED by using 2 sample sizes (n=200 and n=400) and 4 sampling methods: true random, random 4-hour time blocks by exact sample size, random 4-hour time blocks by a predetermined number of blocks, and convenience or "business hours." For each method and sample size, we obtained 1,000 samples from the population. Using χ(2) tests, we measured the number of statistically significant differences between the sample and the population for 8 variables (age, sex, race/ethnicity, language, triage acuity, arrival mode, disposition, and payer source). Then, for each variable, method, and sample size, we compared the proportion of the 1,000 samples that differed from the overall ED population to the expected proportion (5%). RESULTS: Only the true random samples represented the population with respect to sex, race/ethnicity, triage acuity, mode of arrival, language, and payer source in at least 95% of the samples. Patient samples obtained using random 4-hour time blocks and business hours sampling systematically differed from the overall ED patient population for several important demographic and clinical variables. However, the magnitude of these differences was not large. CONCLUSION: Common sampling strategies selected for ED-based studies may affect parameter estimates for several representative population variables. However, the potential for bias for these variables appears small.

Elevated suicide rates at high altitude: sociodemographic and health issues may be to blame.

Suicide rates are higher at high altitudes; some hypothesize that hypoxia is the cause. We examined 8,871 suicides recorded in 2006 in 15 states by the National Violent Death Reporting System, with the victim's home county altitude determined from the National Elevation Dataset through FIPS code matching. We grouped cases by altitude (low<1000m; middle=1000-1999m; high≥2000m). Of reported suicides, 5% were at high and 83% at low altitude, but unadjusted suicide rates per 100,000 population were higher at high (17.7) than at low (5.7) altitude. High and low altitude victims differed with respect to race, ethnicity, rural residence, intoxication, depressed mood preceding the suicide, firearm use and recent financial, job, legal, or interpersonal problems. Even after multivariate adjustment, there were significant differences in personal, mental health, and suicide characteristics among altitude groups. Compared to low altitude victims, high altitude victims had higher odds of having family or friends report of a depressed mood preceding the suicide (OR 1.78; 95%CI:1.46-2.17) and having a crisis within 2weeks before death (OR 2.00; 95%CI:1.63-1.46). Suicide victims at high and low altitudes differ significantly by multiple demographic, psychiatric, and suicide characteristics; these factors, rather than hypoxia or altitude itself, may explain increased suicide rates at high altitude.

Procedural skills training during emergency medicine residency: are we teaching the right things?

OBJECTIVES: The Residency Review Committee training requirements for emergency medicine residents (EM) are defined by consensus panels, with specific topics abstracted from lists of patient complaints and diagnostic codes. The relevance of specific curricular topics to actual practice has not been studied. We compared residency graduates' self-assessed preparation during training to importance in practice for a variety of EM procedural skills. METHODS: We distributed a web-based survey to all graduates of the Denver Health Residency Program in EM over the past 10 years. The survey addressed: practice type and patient census; years of experience; additional procedural training beyond residency; and confidence, preparation, and importance in practice for 12 procedures (extensor tendon repair, transvenous pacing, lumbar puncture, applanation tonometry, arterial line placement, anoscopy, CT scan interpretation, diagnostic peritoneal lavage, slit lamp usage, ultrasonography, compartment pressure measurement and procedural sedation). For each skill, preparation and importance were measured on four-point Likert scales. We compared mean preparation and importance scores using paired sample t-tests, to identify areas of under- or over-preparation. RESULTS: Seventy-four residency graduates (59% of those eligible) completed the survey. There were significant discrepancies between importance in practice and preparation during residency for eight of the 12 skills. Under-preparation was significant for transvenous pacing, CT scan interpretation, slit lamp examinations and procedural sedation. Over-preparation was significant for extensor tendon repair, arterial line placement, peritoneal lavage and ultrasonography. There were strong correlations (r>0.3) between preparation during residency and confidence for 10 of the 12 procedural skills, suggesting a high degree of internal consistency for the survey. CONCLUSIONS: Practicing emergency physicians may be uniquely qualified to identify areas of under- and over-preparation during residency training. There were significant discrepancies between importance in practice and preparation during residency for eight of 12 procedures. There was a strong correlation between confidence and preparation during residency for almost all procedural skills, reenforcing the tenet that residency training is the primary locus of instruction for clinical procedures.