Induction of apoptosis by idarubicin: how important is the plasma peak?

OBJECTIVES: It is still not clear whether a high plasma peak or a prolonged plasma presence of the drug is optimal for chemotherapy with anthracyclines. A high plasma peak seems to correlate with the liberation of oxygen radicals and cumulative delayed cardiotoxicity, and therefore, should be avoided. On the other hand, its role in attaining the desired therapeutic effect, i.e. induction of apoptosis in tumor cells, has not been clearly elucidated. METHODS: Idarubicin is the only anthracycline that can be applied orally. We measured the DNA-binding of idarubicin and idarubicinol and the induced apoptosis in the human promyelocytic HL-60 leukemia cell line. Various pharmacokinetic profiles, with and without clinically relevant peak concentrations, were simulated in vitro. RESULTS: The concentration necessary for maximal DNA-binding and subsequent induction of apoptosis was 1.5 microg/ml for 20 minutes which is well above the plasma concentration achievable in therapy. A plateau of apoptosis was observed after 90 minutes of incubation; a prolongation above 90 minutes did not increase the rate of apoptosis. We simulated a bolus application and a continuous infusion using two different pharmacokinetic profiles of idarubicin with comparable AUCs (area under the time curve). After 48 hours of total incubation, the viability of HL-60 cells was 56.88% with profile 1 (50 ng/ml idarubicin for 2 hours) and 83.00% with profile 2 (4.25 ng/ml for 24 hours). CONCLUSIONS: Although these in vitro experiments are not directly applicable to the clinical situation, they do indicate that a prolongation of the application time up to at least 90 minutes, either by continuous infusion or by oral application, may be acceptable as a method of increasing apoptosis. On the other hand, the plasma peak seems to be an important factor for the induction of apoptosis. Further studies are in progress to define the minimal plasma peak necessary to induce a maximum of apoptosis.

Molecular effects of topoisomerase II inhibitors in AML cell lines: correlation of apoptosis with topoisomerase II activity but not with DNA damage.

We examined the cellular effects of topo II inhibitors in two human myeloid cell lines, HL-60 and KG-1 cells, with the purpose of finding molecular markers for the sensitivity of leukemia cells to topo II inhibitors. These cell lines are widely used, well characterized and they differ in their sensitivities to topo II inhibitors. Despite the fact that HL-60 cells are p53-negative, they are much more sensitive than KG-1 cells. Three different topo II inhibitors with distinct molecular ways of action have been used. Daunorubicin and aclarubicin are DNA intercalators that secondarily interact with topo II; etoposide, on the other hand, directly binds to the enzyme. In contrast to daunorubicin, which induces protein-associated DNA double-strand breaks due to the blockage of topo II action, aclarubicin inhibits the access of DNA by topo II. No correlation could be established between the drug-induced DNA damage and apoptosis. In fact, the amount and pattern of DNA damage examined with the 'comet assay' was characteristic for each drug in both cell lines. The DNA binding of daunorubicin was slightly higher in HL-60 cells, but there was no notable variance between the cell lines for aclarubicin. The most striking difference could be found for the nuclear topo II activity, which was about half in KG-1 cells and, additionally, less than 1% of the nuclear topo II activity was bound to the DNA in KG-1 cells when compared to HL-60 cells. This fraction of topo II interacts with the inhibitors; subsequently these findings might well explain the variance in the cellular sensitivity. Additional factors are alterations of the apoptotic pathways, eg loss of p53 in HL-60 cells. Although we found no differences in the quantity of DNA damage between the cell lines after drug treatment, the quality of DNA damage appeared to be distinct for each topo II inhibitor. The morphological appearance of the comet tails after treatment was characteristic for each drug. Further studies are necessary to decide whether these in vitro data are compatible with the clinical situation.

Intracellular pharmacokinetics of anthracyclines in human leukemia cells: correlation of DNA-binding with apoptotic cell death.

Anthracyclines are major components of the most therapeutical strategies in hematological oncology. These drugs are not directly cytotoxic but induce apoptosis. Due to their lipophilicity, anthracyclines are rapidly distributed in myeloid and lymphatic leukemia cells. Within 20 min after treatment, daunorubicin and idarubicin are found to intercalate into DNA. Shortly after treatment, DNA damage occurs and increases within 3 hours. Apoptosis can be monitored 12-24 hours after treatment, at this timepoint the majority of DNA strand breaks have already been repaired. A statistically highly significant linear correlation could be established between the DNA binding rate of anthracyclines and the resulting cell death. This indicates that DNA binding is a prerequisite for the induction of apoptosis. With respect to cellular resistance mechanisms, 2 different pharmacodynamic phases can be distinguished: intracellular distribution and cellular reaction. The endpoint of the "distribution phase" is marked by the DNA intercalation of the anthracyclines. Cellular resistance mechanisms which decrease the DNA binding include membrane transport mechanisms and vesicular trapping of the drugs. The "reaction phase" might be disturbed by complex antiapoptotic mechanisms. The assessment of DNA binding in malignant cells during or shortly after treatment with anthracyclines might be a useful tool to distinguish cellular resistance mechanisms.

Topoisomerase II activities in AML and their correlation with cellular sensitivity to anthracyclines and epipodophyllotoxines.

We have developed a method to quantify topoisomerase (topo) II activities in partially purified nuclear extracts from human leukemia cells. By virtue of their different pH optima in the reaction buffer, two different topo II activities were found with activity optima at pH 7.9 and at pH 8.9 under high stringency conditions. The activities could be identified as topo II beta activity (pH 7.9) and topo II alpha activity (pH 8.9) by their different sensitivities to topo II alpha inhibitors, dephosphorylation experiments and immunoprecipitation with polyclonal antibodies. Seventy-two bone marrow or blood samples from patients with acute myeloid leukemias have been examined and their in vitro sensitivities to anthracyclines and epipodophyllotoxines correlated to the activities of topo II alpha and topo II beta. Although the topo II alpha activity could be directly inhibited by incubation of the cells with the mentioned drugs, no correlation between the topo II alpha activity and the sensitivity of the cells could be found. In contrast, the topo II beta activity which was not substantially inhibited by the drugs inversely correlated with the sensitivity of the cells. These findings were statistically significant for idarubicin (P= 0.017) and daunorubicin (P = 0.006). Vice versa, resistant cells (IC50 > median) had a higher topo II beta activity. Clinical relevance might be indicated by the finding that cells from patients that relapsed after initial treatment with anthracyclin-containing regiments had a significantly higher topo II alpha/beta activity ratio (P=0.0276). Obviously, the sensitivity of AML cells is substantially influenced by the activity of the resistant topo II (topo II beta) which gives evidence that the remaining topo II activity after treatment helps the cell to survive the DNA repair phase.

Topoisomerase II activities in AML blasts and their correlation with cellular sensitivity to anthracyclines and epipodophyllotoxines.

We have developed a method to quantify topoisomerase (topo) II activities in partially purified nuclear extracts from human leukemia cells. By virtue of their different pH optima in the reaction buffer, two different topo II activities were found with activity optima at pH 7.9 and at pH 8.9 under high stringency conditions. The activities could be identified as topo II beta activity (pH 7.9) and topo II alpha activity (pH 8.9) by their different sensitivities to topo II alpha inhibitors, dephosphorylation experiments and immunoprecipitation with polyclonal antibodies. Seventy-two bone marrow or blood samples from patients with acute myeloid leukemias have been examined and their in vitro sensitivities to anthracyclines and epipodophyllotoxines correlated to the activities of topo II alpha and topo II beta. Although the topo II alpha activity could be directly inhibited by incubation of the cells with the mentioned drugs, no correlation between the topo II alpha activity and the sensitivity of the cells could be found. In contrast, the topo II beta activity which was not substantially inhibited by the drugs inversely correlated with the sensitivity of the cells. These findings were statistically significant for idarubicin (P=0.017) and daunorubicin (P=0.006). Vice versa, resistant cells (IC90 > median) had a higher topo II beta activity. Clinical relevance might be indicated by the finding that cells from patients that relapsed after initial treatment with anthracyclin-containing regiments had a significantly higher topo II alpha/beta activity ratio (P=0.0276). Obviously, the sensitivity of AML cells is substantially influenced by the activity of the resistant topo II (topo II beta) which gives evidence that the remaining topo II activity after treatment helps the cell to survive the DNA repair phase.