More than just changeability: Specific factors are used to explain the changeability of personality traits.

Implicit theories and psychological essentialism are valuable frameworks used to model how changeable many traits are perceived to be. These frameworks, however, characterise changeability as a broad and generalised construct and do not fully capture the nuance and specificity involved in personality changeability. We therefore sought to deconstruct implicit theories about changeability into underlying more specific aspects of changeability. We measured how changeable people theorise personality traits to be according to three underlying specific factors: volitional control, context and age. We investigated how specific implicit theories about changeability vary across different personality traits. We show that two personality traits (agreeableness and conscientiousness) are linked to dissociable patterns of specific factors used to explain how changeable they are. These findings yield new insight into the way people explain why personality traits are changeable and demonstrate that different types of reasons are used to explain the changeability of agreeableness and conscientiousness.

When What Is Beautiful Is Not Good: The Role of Trait Self-Control in Resisting Eye Candy.

People are drawn to and like others who are physically attractive. In the present research, we investigated the influence of trait self-control on individuals' interest in relationships with physically attractive others. We hypothesized that high (vs. low) self-control individuals would approach relationships by considering information beyond appearance about potential partners, including partners' self-control. We additionally explored the influence of other traits (e.g., Big 5, self-esteem, and attachment styles) on relationship interest. Across studies, we consistently found that individuals with higher self-control avoided pursuing relationships with attractive individuals who display low self-control. In Study 3, we observed a similar pattern for three other traits: conscientiousness, extraversion, and positivity embracement. These results suggest perceivers' self-control shapes relationship interest, particularly when attractive individuals possess less desirable qualities. The findings extend past research that attractiveness increases interest in others and highlights the potential for trait self-control to direct relationship interest during initial interactions.

Partner-Involved Financial Incentives for Smoking Cessation in Dual-Smoker Couples: A Randomized Pilot Trial.

INTRODUCTION: Members of dual-smoker couples (in which both partners smoke) are unlikely to try to quit smoking and are likely to relapse if they do make an attempt. The purpose of this study was to investigate the feasibility, tolerability, and preliminary outcomes of dyadic adaptations of financial incentive treatments (FITs) to promote smoking cessation in dual-smoker couples. AIMS AND METHODS: We enrolled 95 dual-smoker couples (N = 190) in a three-arm feasibility RCT comparing two partner-involved FITs (single vs. dual incentives) against a no-treatment control condition. Participants in all conditions were offered nicotine replacement and psychoeducation. A 3-month follow-up provided information about retention, tolerability (ie, self-reported benefits and costs of the study), and preliminary efficacy (ie, program completion, quit attempts, point-prevalent abstinence, and joint quitting). RESULTS: Results suggest dyadic adaptations were feasible to implement (89% retention rate) and highly tolerable for participants (p < .001). Neither feasibility nor tolerability varied across the treatment arm. Preliminary efficacy outcomes indicated partner-involved FITs have promise for increasing smoking cessation in dual-smoker couples (OR = 2.36-13.06). CONCLUSIONS: Dyadic implementations of FITs are feasible to implement and tolerable to participants. IMPLICATIONS: The evidence that dyadic adaptations of FITs were feasible and tolerable, and the positive preliminary efficacy outcomes suggest that adequately powered RCTs formally evaluating the efficacy of dyadic adaptations of FITs for dual-smoker couples are warranted.

The role of temporal distance on forecasting the difficulty of goal pursuits.

The current research examined individuals' perceptions of difficulty regarding goal striving in the near and distant future. Study 1 tested the hypothesis that predictions decrease over increasing temporal distance. Participants forecasted how difficult several goal-related tasks would be at varying points in the future. Our hypothesis was mostly supported. Results from hierarchical linear modeling showed many statistically significant linear and quadratic effects of temporal distance on predictions within and across goal tasks. Moreover, all future time points were rated as easier compared to now, with medium to large differences in difficulty. In Study 2, participants forecasted the difficulty of pursuing a goal-related task two days away, and we followed up to assess actual difficulty. Participants' predictions were generally accurate. Goal commitment moderated accuracy, as individuals low (vs. high) in goal commitment underestimated (overestimated) difficulty. Overall, our results suggest that cognitions about future goal striving may affect momentary motivation and self-regulation.

The role of values in coping with health and economic threats of COVID-19.

The current research examined the role of values in guiding people's responses to COVID-19. Results from an international study involving 115 countries (N = 61,490) suggest that health and economic threats of COVID-19 evoke different values, with implications for controlling and coping with the pandemic. Specifically, health threats predicted prioritization of communal values related to caring for others and belonging, whereas economic threats predicted prioritization of agentic values focused on competition and achievement. Concurrently and over time, prioritizing communal values over agentic values was associated with enactment of prevention behaviors that reduce virus transmission, motivations to help others suffering from the pandemic, and positive attitudes toward outgroup members. These results, which were generally consistent across individual and national levels of analysis, suggest that COVID-19 threats may indirectly shape important responses to the pandemic through their influence on people's prioritization of communion and agency. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Using machine learning to identify important predictors of COVID-19 infection prevention behaviors during the early phase of the pandemic.

Before vaccines for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) became available, a set of infection-prevention behaviors constituted the primary means to mitigate the virus spread. Our study aimed to identify important predictors of this set of behaviors. Whereas social and health psychological theories suggest a limited set of predictors, machine-learning analyses can identify correlates from a larger pool of candidate predictors. We used random forests to rank 115 candidate correlates of infection-prevention behavior in 56,072 participants across 28 countries, administered in March to May 2020. The machine-learning model predicted 52% of the variance in infection-prevention behavior in a separate test sample-exceeding the performance of psychological models of health behavior. Results indicated the two most important predictors related to individual-level injunctive norms. Illustrating how data-driven methods can complement theory, some of the most important predictors were not derived from theories of health behavior-and some theoretically derived predictors were relatively unimportant.

Predictors of adherence to public health behaviors for fighting COVID-19 derived from longitudinal data.

The present paper examines longitudinally how subjective perceptions about COVID-19, one's community, and the government predict adherence to public health measures to reduce the spread of the virus. Using an international survey (N = 3040), we test how infection risk perception, trust in the governmental response and communications about COVID-19, conspiracy beliefs, social norms on distancing, tightness of culture, and community punishment predict various containment-related attitudes and behavior. Autoregressive analyses indicate that, at the personal level, personal hygiene behavior was predicted by personal infection risk perception. At social level, social distancing behaviors such as abstaining from face-to-face contact were predicted by perceived social norms. Support for behavioral mandates was predicted by confidence in the government and cultural tightness, whereas support for anti-lockdown protests was predicted by (lower) perceived clarity of communication about the virus. Results are discussed in light of policy implications and creating effective interventions.

COVID-19 stressors and health behaviors: A multilevel longitudinal study across 86 countries.

Anxiety associated with the COVID-19 pandemic and home confinement has been associated with adverse health behaviors, such as unhealthy eating, smoking, and drinking. However, most studies have been limited by regional sampling, which precludes the examination of behavioral consequences associated with the pandemic at a global level. Further, few studies operationalized pandemic-related stressors to enable the investigation of the impact of different types of stressors on health outcomes. This study examined the association between perceived risk of COVID-19 infection and economic burden of COVID-19 with health-promoting and health-damaging behaviors using data from the PsyCorona Study: an international, longitudinal online study of psychological and behavioral correlates of COVID-19. Analyses utilized data from 7,402 participants from 86 countries across three waves of assessment between May 16 and June 13, 2020. Participants completed self-report measures of COVID-19 infection risk, COVID-19-related economic burden, physical exercise, diet quality, cigarette smoking, sleep quality, and binge drinking. Multilevel structural equation modeling analyses showed that across three time points, perceived economic burden was associated with reduced diet quality and sleep quality, as well as increased smoking. Diet quality and sleep quality were lowest among respondents who perceived high COVID-19 infection risk combined with high economic burden. Neither binge drinking nor exercise were associated with perceived COVID-19 infection risk, economic burden, or their interaction. Findings point to the value of developing interventions to address COVID-related stressors, which have an impact on health behaviors that, in turn, may influence vulnerability to COVID-19 and other health outcomes.

Correction: Politicization of COVID-19 health-protective behaviors in the United States: Longitudinal and cross-national evidence.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0256740.].

Feasibility, tolerability, and potential advantages of a dyadic financial incentive treatment for smoking cessation among dual-smoker couples: A pilot study.

As of 2019, 34.1 million adults in the United States smoke cigarettes. People who smoke and who are partnered with other smokers (i.e., dual-smoker couples [DSCs]) represent an estimated two-thirds of U.S. smokers. DSCs face unique obstacles to quitting, are less likely to try to quit, and are more likely to relapse during a quit attempt. Although joint quit attempts hold promise for DSCs' abstinence, few DSCs report trying to quit together. Financial incentive treatments [FITs]-where individuals receive monetary incentives for quitting and maintaining abstinence-increase motivation to quit, and so may help DSCs engage in joint quit attempts. We tested the feasibility and tolerability of adapting a financial incentive treatment to a dyadic context (N = 14 DSCs), in which both individuals of a smoking couple are offered incentives for attendance in a smoking cessation program ($100 USD) and abstinence at follow-up ($100 USD). Ten DSCs (71.4%) completed the follow-up session. Seven participants had biochemically verified abstinence at the follow-up session; of these, six of the seven (86%) were members of DSCs in which both partners were abstinent. Among participants who completed the follow-up session, cravings to smoke and tobacco withdrawal symptom severity were reduced over the study period. Participants rated the study as highly tolerable and listed many benefits and few costs from participation. The present study demonstrates the feasibility, tolerability, and potential advantages of implementing a dyadic financial incentive treatment for smoking cessation for DSCs in the U.S. over the course of 2 months. Public Health Significance: This pilot study demonstrates the feasibility, tolerability, and potential advantages of implementing a dyadic financial incentive treatment for smoking cessation for people who smoke who are coupled with other smokers (dual-smoker couples). The majority of participants (86%) who were abstinent at 2-month follow-up were in a relationship with another smoker who was abstinent at follow-up, suggesting advantages of a dyadic financial incentive treatment to promote joint quit attempts among dual-smoker couples. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Politicization of COVID-19 health-protective behaviors in the United States: Longitudinal and cross-national evidence.

During the initial phase of the COVID-19 pandemic, U.S. conservative politicians and the media downplayed the risk of both contracting COVID-19 and the effectiveness of recommended health behaviors. Health behavior theories suggest perceived vulnerability to a health threat and perceived effectiveness of recommended health-protective behaviors determine motivation to follow recommendations. Accordingly, we predicted that-as a result of politicization of the pandemic-politically conservative Americans would be less likely to enact recommended health-protective behaviors. In two longitudinal studies of U.S. residents, political conservatism was inversely associated with perceived health risk and adoption of health-protective behaviors over time. The effects of political orientation on health-protective behaviors were mediated by perceived risk of infection, perceived severity of infection, and perceived effectiveness of the health-protective behaviors. In a global cross-national analysis, effects were stronger in the U.S. (N = 10,923) than in an international sample (total N = 51,986), highlighting the increased and overt politicization of health behaviors in the U.S.

Self-reported Changes in Energy Balance Behaviors during COVID-19-related Home Confinement: A Cross-sectional Study.

Objectives: Cross-sectional reports on weight gain during the COVID-19 shelter-at-home have raised concerns for weight increases as the pandemic continues. We examined behaviors that impact energy intake and/or energy expenditure among adults in the United States during shelter-at-home. Methods: Cross-sectional data (N=1779; April 24 - May4, 2020) were collected on demographics, diet, physical activity, sleep, and food purchasing behaviors. Percent of participants reporting increase/ decrease/no change in these behaviors during the COVID-19 shelter-at-home were assessed. Each analysis was followed by comparing whether increases or decreases were more likely for each health behavior, in all participants and across sex (43.38% males). Results: Increased consumption of healthy foods, energy-dense unhealthy foods, and snacks, and increased sedentary activities (p < .001) was reported. Physical activity and alcohol intake declined (p < .001). Females were more likely than males (p < .001) to report ultra-processed foods/high-calorie snack intake, fruit/vegetable intake (p < .001) and increase (p < .01) sleep and sedentary behavior. Conclusion: Acute behavioral changes supporting greater energy intake and less energy expenditure, especially in females, underscore the significance of COVID-19-related increase in unstructured time. Longitudinal assessment of body weight and health behaviors is warranted to understand the impact of pandemic.

Recalled Neighborhood Environments, Parental Control, and Cytokine-Mediated Response to Viral Challenge.

OBJECTIVE: Neighborhood risk in childhood is associated with poor health across the life span. However, many people who are reared in risky neighborhoods remain healthy in adulthood. In the context of high-risk neighborhoods, parenting practices that are controlling might promote better physical health outcomes later in life. The current study used a viral challenge paradigm to examine whether parental control throughout childhood moderated the association between recalled neighborhood risk and cytokine-mediated cold susceptibility. METHODS: A sample of 209 healthy adults completed questionnaires to assess recalled neighborhood risk and parental control over the first 15 years of life, were exposed to a common cold virus, and were quarantined for 6 days. Researchers assessed nasal proinflammatory cytokine production and objective markers of illness. Participants were diagnosed with a clinical cold if they met the infection and objective illness criteria. RESULTS: A significant Neighborhood Risk by Parental Control interaction emerged to predict proinflammatory cytokine production. Furthermore, parental control moderated the cytokine-mediated association between neighborhood risk and cold diagnosis (index = -0.073, 95% confidence interval [CI] = -0.170 to -0.016), likelihood of infection (index = -0.071, 95% CI = -0.172 to -0.015), and meeting the objective symptom criteria (index = -0.074, 95% CI = -0.195 to -0.005). Specifically, there was a negative association between neighborhood risk and objective cold diagnosis and infection status at higher levels of parental control, but a nonsignificant association at lower levels of parental control. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that the degree to which recalled neighborhood risk is related to adult health varies as a function of parental control throughout childhood.

Energy Balance-Related Behavior Risk Pattern and Its Correlates During COVID-19 Related Home Confinement.

Self-reported weight gain during the COVID-19 shelter-at-home has raised concerns for weight increases as the pandemic continues. We aimed to investigate the relationship of psychological and health markers with energy balance-related behaviors during the pandemic-related extended home confinement. Ratings for stress, boredom, cravings, sleep, self-control, and beliefs about weight control were collected from 1,609 adults using a questionnaire between April 24th-May 4th, 2020, while COVID-19 associated shelter-in-place guidelines were instituted across the US. We calculated four energy balance behavior scores (physical activity risk index, unhealthy eating risk index, healthy eating risk index, sedentary behavior index), and conducted a latent profile analysis of the risk factors. We examined psychological and health correlates of these risk patterns. Boredom, cravings for sweet/savory foods, and high sleepiness ratings related to high risk of increasing unhealthy eating and sedentary behavior and decreasing physical activity and healthy eating. Having greater self-control, control over cravings, or positive mood was related to lowering all aspects of energy intake and energy expenditure risks. Although individuals in risk pattern classes showed similarity in physical activity and healthy/unhealthy eating habits, they exhibited different patterns of positive mood, craving control, food cravings, boredom, and self-control. Psychological and health variables may have a significant role to play in risk behaviors associated with weight gain during the COVID-19 related home confinement. Emerging behavioral patterns may be meaningful in developing targeted weight management interventions during the current pandemic.

Longitudinal Weight Gain and Related Risk Behaviors during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Adults in the US.

Cross-sectional analyses have shown increased obesogenic behaviors and a potential for weight gain during COVID-19 related peak-lockdown (March-May 2020), but longitudinal data are lacking. This study assessed longitudinal changes in body weight and lifestyle behaviors in the US adults during the pandemic. METHODS: We used Qualtrics survey to collect self-reported data on body weight, dietary, physical activity, and psychological variables (n = 727) during the peak-lockdown (April/May) and at post-lockdown (September/October). Peak-lockdown weight data were categorized based on the magnitude of weight gained, maintained, or lost, and behavioral differences were examined between categories at two time points. RESULTS: Body weight increased (+0.62 kg; p < 0.05) at the post-lockdown period. The body mass index also increased (26.38 ± 5.98 kg/m2 vs. 26.12 ± 5.81 kg/m2; p < 0.01) at the post-lockdown period vs. peak-lockdown period. Close to 40% of participants reported gaining either 1-4 lbs or >5 lbs of body weight during the peak-lockdown, while 18.2% lost weight. Weight-gainers engaged in riskier dietary behaviors such as frequent ultra-processed food intake (p < 0.01) and snacking (p < 0.001), were less active, and reported high stress and less craving control during peak-lockdown. Of those gaining >5 lbs, 33% continued to gain weight after the lockdown eased, while 28% maintain higher body weight. In weight-gainers, takeout meal frequency increased, and high ultra-processed food intake and stress, and low craving control continued to persist after the lockdown eased. CONCLUSION: We show that the COVID-19 lockdown periods disrupted weight management among many Americans and that associated health effects are likely to persist.

Self-weighing Practices and Associated Health Behaviors during COVID-19.

Objective: In this study, we investigated self-weighing frequency (SWF) among adults during the COVID-19 pandemic and retrospectively (6 months) before the pandemic, and whether SWF was associated with changes in health-related behaviors. Methods: United States adults (N = 1607) completed a health-related questionnaire during COVID-19 and associated shelter-in-place. We categorized respondents into 4 groups of SWF at the time of the pandemic: "Never," "< 1x a week," "1x a week," or "> 1x a week." Results: The proportion of adults never weighing increased during the pandemic (15% to 25%), whereas the proportion of those weighing < 1x week went down (41% to 29%). Higher SWF was significantly associated with changes in energy expenditure including increased total physical activity (PA), lower likelihood of decreases in vigorous, moderate, and walking PA, and a lower likelihood of sitting more. More frequent self-weighing also was associated statistically with lower likelihood of keeping unhealthy eating behaviors the same. Conversely, there was no significant difference in changes in alcohol, caffeine, takeout, fruit or vegetable consumption, and television viewing among SWF groups. Conclusion: SWF decreased during the pandemic in the lower 2 SWF categories. Higher SWF was associated with fewer negative changes in health behaviors, especially related to PA.

Assessing multiple features of partner support for smoking cessation in dual-smoker couples.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate a new scale to measure multiple aspects of partner support for quitting smoking relevant to dual-smoker couples, called the Partner Support for Quitting Scale. The best model fit (N = 238 individuals in 119 couples) considers the frequency of, confidence in, and perceived usefulness of partner support behaviors. Path analysis revealed that the Partner Support for Quitting Scale factors were uniquely predicted by relationship commitment and nicotine dependence and, in turn, predicted self-efficacy for smoking cessation and desire to quit. Preliminary support was found for the Partner Support for Quitting Scales' value as an assessment tool for measuring partner support for smoking cessation among dual-smoker couples.

Psychometric Validation of the Brief Alcohol Social Density Assessment in an Adult Community Sample.

BACKGROUND: Individuals' social networks exert a strong influence on alcohol use, but valid assessment of network drinking behavior is typically lengthy and high in participant burden. The aim of this study was to validate the Brief Alcohol Social Density Assessment (BASDA), an efficient measure of perceived alcohol use within a person's social network, in a sample of adult drinkers from the general community. Specifically, the convergent, criterion-related, incremental validity and internal validity were investigated by examining the BASDA in relation to other established measures of drinking motives, weekly drinking level, and severity of involvement. METHODS: Participants were 903 (56% female) adults who reported drinking in the last year and who completed the BASDA, the Drinking Motives Questionnaire, the Daily Drinking Questionnaire, and the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). RESULTS: Significant positive correlations were found between the BASDA and drinking motives, drinking quantity, and the AUDIT (rs = 0.21 to 0.51, ps < 0.001), providing support for convergent validity. There was a significantly higher BASDA score for those scoring at or above an AUDIT cutoff for hazardous drinking (p < 0.001), providing support for criterion-related validity. Finally, beyond motives and covariates, the BASDA was significantly associated with total AUDIT score (ΔR2  = 0.09, p < 0.001), indicating its additive contribution and providing support for incremental validity. Confirmatory factor analysis revealed excellent fit, and all items significantly loaded onto a single factor (p < 0.0001), providing evidence of internal validity. The resulting alcohol social density latent variable was significantly and robustly associated with drinks per week and AUDIT total score. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide further support for the BASDA as a valid and efficient measure of social network alcohol density for understanding social influences on alcohol misuse.

Promotion by Others through Social Networks.

Although self-promotion may be the most direct way people self-present, it carries social costs. We propose a novel phenomenon-promotion by others-wherein social networks may afford similar advantages with fewer costs. We utilized egocentric network analysis to examine relationships between social connections and perceived promoter potential (i.e., likelihood a friend will tell others about successes; PPP) and relationship dynamics. Participants enumerated friends and reported perceptions these friends would promote them, were valuable, and the extent to which they wanted these friends to know about successes. PPP was positively related to (a) network connectedness, (b) relational value, and (c) desire to know about success. We discuss benefits of promotion by others and individual differences related to engagement in this process.

Self-weighing Frequency and Its Relationship with Health Measures.

Objectives: In this study, we investigated self-weighing frequency (SWF) among adults and whether SWF was associated with health markers. Methods: We had 533 US adults complete a questionnaire on SWF and other health markers. Respondents were categorized into 4 quartiles of SWF: "Never," "<1x/week," "1x/week," or ">1x/week." Results: Overall, 60.0% of adults weighed <1x/week and 25% never weighed. More frequent self-weighing was associated with less sedentary time, more vigorous physical activity (PA) and several healthier practices including reading nutrition labels, eating whole grains, drinking less soda, self-monitoring of food, PA and weight change, and consuming lower- or no-calorie beverages and sweeteners. Conversely, there was no difference in BMI, age, stress, education, sleep, screen time, or chronic diseases between SWF quartiles. Conclusion: Whereas SWF was associated with some markers of health including vigorous PA and some healthier dietary habits, SWF was not linked to BMI, stress, sleep, or chronic diseases.