Commentary: Technoference or parental phubbing? A call for greater conceptual and operational clarity of parental smartphone use around children.

Recent years have seen a widespread integration of technology into the daily lives of families. Psychological science has recently started to focus on the use of smartphones by parents while they are engaged in parenting activities, a behavior known under the terms "phubbing," "technoference," "parental screen distraction," and various other terms. We argue that understanding the real impact of co-present smartphone use by parents is inhibited by problems related to the conceptualization and methodology employed in empirical studies. In the present commentary, we identify the features of current research that may contribute to the theory crisis and hamper the progress of psychological research. Specifically, we discuss the implications of (a) inconsistent conceptualization of the phenomenon and (b) suboptimal operationalizations that may prevent us from understanding what is being studied and call for greater consideration of definitional clarity and valid operationalization in future research.

Smartphone-Tracked Digital Markers of Momentary Subjective Stress in College Students: Idiographic Machine Learning Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Stress is an important predictor of mental health problems such as burnout and depression. Acute stress is considered adaptive, whereas chronic stress is viewed as detrimental to well-being. To aid in the early detection of chronic stress, machine learning models are increasingly trained to learn the quantitative relation from digital footprints to self-reported stress. Prior studies have investigated general principles in population-wide studies, but the extent to which the findings apply to individuals is understudied. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to explore to what extent machine learning models can leverage features of smartphone app use log data to recognize momentary subjective stress in individuals, which of these features are most important for predicting stress and represent potential digital markers of stress, the nature of the relations between these digital markers and stress, and the degree to which these relations differ across people. METHODS: Student participants (N=224) self-reported momentary subjective stress 5 times per day up to 60 days in total (44,381 observations); in parallel, dedicated smartphone software continuously logged their smartphone app use. We extracted features from the log data (eg, time spent on app categories such as messenger apps and proxies for sleep duration and onset) and trained machine learning models to predict momentary subjective stress from these features using 2 approaches: modeling general relations at the group level (nomothetic approach) and modeling relations for each person separately (idiographic approach). To identify potential digital markers of momentary subjective stress, we applied explainable artificial intelligence methodology (ie, Shapley additive explanations). We evaluated model accuracy on a person-to-person basis in out-of-sample observations. RESULTS: We identified prolonged use of messenger and social network site apps and proxies for sleep duration and onset as the most important features across modeling approaches (nomothetic vs idiographic). The relations of these digital markers with momentary subjective stress differed from person to person, as did model accuracy. Sleep proxies, messenger, and social network use were heterogeneously related to stress (ie, negative in some and positive or zero in others). Model predictions correlated positively and statistically significantly with self-reported stress in most individuals (median person-specific correlation=0.15-0.19 for nomothetic models and median person-specific correlation=0.00-0.09 for idiographic models). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that smartphone log data can be used for identifying digital markers of stress and also show that the relation between specific digital markers and stress differs from person to person. These findings warrant follow-up studies in other populations (eg, professionals and clinical populations) and pave the way for similar research using physiological measures of stress.

Predicting Teens' Privacy Management and Attitude Toward Data Protection on Social Media.

This study contributes to ongoing debates on the protection of teens' privacy on social media. While ample research is focused on teens' privacy management, less is known about their attitude toward data protection. Drawing from cross-sectional survey data, this study examines whether predictors of privacy management, namely privacy literacy, privacy concern, and perceptions of data control, also predict teens' attitude toward data protection. Structural equation modeling indicates that all three factors positively predict this facet of privacy. No significant differences were found in the strength of predictors for boys versus girls for privacy management, although the findings do suggest some gender differences for attitude toward data protection that call for further research.

Drug, demon, or donut? Theorizing the relationship between social media use, digital well-being and digital disconnection.

Social media overuse is a central concern in discussions over digital well-being. Digital disconnection is often presented as a solution to this problem, but mixed evidence on its effectiveness suggests we lack understanding of why, how and when disconnection works. Drawing from three recurrent social media metaphors - the drug, demon and donut metaphor - this article aims to advance understanding of social media disconnection by developing a classification of disconnective mechanisms in accordance with three conceptual approaches to social media overuse. This classification provides theory-driven support for differing social media disconnection mechanisms. We discuss its implications for practice and future research.

Does a 7-day restriction on the use of social media improve cognitive functioning and emotional well-being? Results from a randomized controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: Screen time apps that allow smartphone users to manage their screen time are assumed to combat negative effects of smartphone use. This study explores whether a social media restriction, implemented via screen time apps, has a positive effect on emotional well-being and sustained attention performance. METHODS: A randomized controlled trial (N = 76) was performed, exploring whether a week-long 50% reduction in time spent on mobile Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat and YouTube is beneficial to attentional performance and well-being as compared to a 10% reduction. RESULTS: Unexpectedly, several participants in the control group pro-actively reduced their screen time significantly beyond the intended 10%, dismantling our intended screen time manipulation. Hence, we analyzed both the effect of the original manipulation (i.e. treatment-as-intended), and the effect of participants' relative reduction in screen time irrespective of their condition (i.e. treatment-as-is). Neither analyses revealed an effect on the outcome measures. We also found no support for a moderating role of self-control, impulsivity or Fear of Missing Out. Interestingly, across all participants behavioral performance on sustained attention tasks remained stable over time, while perceived attentional performance improved. Participants also self-reported a decrease in negative emotions, but no increase in positive emotions. CONCLUSION: We discuss the implications of our findings in light of recent debates about the impact of screen time and formulate suggestions for future research based on important limitations of the current study, revolving among others around appropriate control groups as well as the combined use of both subjective and objective (i.e., behavioral) measures.

Measurement invariance of the Phubbing Scale across 20 countries.

Mobile phone addiction is a robust phenomenon observed throughout the world. The social aspect of mobile phone use is crucial; therefore, phubbing is a part of the mobile phone addiction phenomenon. Phubbing is defined as ignoring an interlocutor by glancing at one's mobile phone during a face-to-face conversation. The main aim of this study was to investigate how the Phubbing Scale (containing 10 items) might vary across countries, and between genders. Data were collected in 20 countries: Belarus, Brazil, China, Croatia, Ecuador, India, Israel, Italy, Netherlands, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Turkey, UK, Ukraine and USA. The mean age across the sample (N = 7696, 65.8% women, 34.2% men) was 25.32 years (SD = 9.50). The cross-cultural invariance of the scale was investigated using multigroup confirmatory factor analyses (MGCFA) as well as the invariance analyses. Additionally, data from each country were assessed individually via confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs). We obtained two factors, based on only eight of the items: (a) communication disturbances and (b) phone obsession. The 8 items Phubbing Scale.

Country Indicators Moderating the Relationship Between Phubbing and Psychological Distress: A Study in 20 Countries.

Problematic mobile phone use can be related to negative mental states. Some studies indicate that behavioural dependency is related to variables associated with the country of origin. The aim of our study was to investigate if country indicators moderated the relationship between phubbing and psychological distress. Our sample consisted of 7,315 individuals from 20 countries, who completed the Phubbing Scale and the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K6). The analyses also included country indicators: the Gender Gap Index (GGI), the Human Development Index (HDI), the Social Progress Index (SPI), Hofstede's dimensions of culture, and the World Happiness Index (WHI). Our results showed that psychological distress was related to at least one dimension of phubbing (i.e., to communication disturbance or phone obsession) in all countries, which means this relationship is culturally universal. The results of the study demonstrate the importance of testing measurement invariance to determine what type of analysis and what type of conclusion are valid in a given study or comparison. Moreover, the increasing or decreasing correlation between phubbing and distress is related to some culture-level indices.

Tracking Infant Development With a Smartphone: A Practical Guide to the Experience Sampling Method.

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced developmental researchers to rethink their traditional research practices. The growing need to study infant development at a distance has shifted our research paradigm to online and digital monitoring of infants and families, using electronic devices, such as smartphones. In this practical guide, we introduce the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) - a research method to collect data, in the moment, on multiple occasions over time - for examining infant development at a distance. ESM is highly suited for assessing dynamic processes of infant development and family dynamics, such as parent-infant interactions and parenting practices. It can also be used to track highly fluctuating family dynamics (e.g., infant and parental mood or behavior) and routines (e.g., activity levels and feeding practices). The aim of the current paper was to provide an overview by explaining what ESM is and for what types of research ESM is best suited. Next, we provide a brief step-by-step guide on how to start and run an ESM study, including preregistration, development of a questionnaire, using wearables and other hardware, planning and design considerations, and examples of possible analysis techniques. Finally, we discuss common pitfalls of ESM research and how to avoid them.

Influence of the Business Revenue, Recommendation, and Provider Models on Mobile Health App Adoption: Three-Country Experimental Vignette Study.

BACKGROUND: Despite the worldwide growth in mobile health (mHealth) tools and the possible benefits of mHealth for patients and health care providers, scientific research examining factors explaining the adoption level of mHealth tools remains scarce. OBJECTIVE: We performed an experimental vignette study to investigate how four factors related to the business model of an mHealth app affect its adoption and users' willingness to pay: (1) the revenue model (ie, sharing data with third parties vs accepting advertisements); (2) the data protection model (General Data Protection Regulation [GDPR]-compliant data handling vs nonGDPR-compliant data handling); (3) the recommendation model (ie, doctor vs patient recommendation); and (4) the provider model (ie, pharmaceutical vs medical association provider). In addition, health consciousness, health information orientation, and electronic health literacy were explored as intrapersonal predictors of adoption. METHODS: We conducted an experimental study in three countries, Spain (N=800), Germany (N=800), and the Netherlands (N=416), to assess the influence of multiple business models and intrapersonal characteristics on the willingness to pay and intention to download a health app. RESULTS: The revenue model did not affect willingness to pay or intentions to download the app in all three countries. In the Netherlands, data protection increased willingness to pay for the health app (P<.001). Moreover, in all three countries, data protection increased the likelihood of downloading the app (P<.001). In Germany (P=.04) and the Netherlands (P=.007), a doctor recommendation increased both willingness to pay and intention to download the health app. For all three countries, apps manufactured in association with a medical organization were more likely to be downloaded (P<.001). Finally, in all three countries, men, younger individuals, those with higher levels of education, and people with a health information orientation were willing to pay more for adoption of the health app and had a higher intention to download the app. CONCLUSIONS: The finding that people want their data protected by legislation but are not willing to pay more for data protection suggests that in the context of mHealth, app privacy protection cannot be leveraged as a selling point. However, people do value a doctor recommendation and apps manufactured by a medical association, which particularly influence their intention to download an mHealth app.

Are Parents Less Responsive to Young Children When They Are on Their Phones? A Systematic Naturalistic Observation Study.

This study examined whether parents are less responsive to their young children (0-5) when they use a phone. We systematically observed 53 parent-child dyads in consultation bureau waiting rooms and playgrounds. Twenty-three parents used their phone at least once during the observation. Across the dyads, we observed parent and child behavior during a total of 1,038 ten-second intervals. Of these intervals, 641 contained a bid for attention from the child. Accounting for the nested nature of the data, we found that the odds of parents responding to their child's bid for attention were five times lower when using a phone than when not using one. Moreover, parents' responses were less timely, weaker, showed less affect, and were less likely to prioritize the child over other activities. While being fully absorbed in one's phone significantly decreased the odds of responding compared to when not using a phone, occasionally glancing at the phone did not, suggesting that parents may have developed a "mode" of phone use for managing dual attention over the phone and the child. In addition, while a higher intensity of phone use does seem to matter, it did not differ from intense engagement in other nonchild directed activities. The incidence of fully absorbed phone use, however, is greater. Finally, the results show that asking for consent for the observation beforehand leads to a decrease in the odds of phone use, suggesting a social desirability bias. Overall, the findings support concerns over the impact of parental phone use on child development.

Staying Informed and Bridging "Social Distance": Smartphone News Use and Mobile Messaging Behaviors of Flemish Adults during the First Weeks of the COVID-19 Pandemic.

The authors explore patterns of smartphone use during the first weeks following the outbreak of the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic in Belgium, focusing on citizens' use of smartphones to consume news and to communicate and interact with others. Unique smartphone tracking data from 2,778 Flemish adults reveal that at the height of the outbreak, people used their smartphone on average 45 minutes (28 percent) more than before the outbreak. The number of smartphone pickups remained fairly stable over this period. This means that on average, users did not turn to their smartphones more frequently but used them longer to access news (54 percent increase), social media apps (72 percent increase), messaging apps (64 percent increase), and the voice call feature (44 percent increase). These smartphone use patterns suggest that smartphones are key instruments that help citizens stay informed, in sync, and in touch with society during times of crisis.

Fear of Missing Out as a Predictor of Problematic Social Media Use and Phubbing Behavior among Flemish Adolescents.

Fear-of-missing-out (FOMO) refers to feelings of anxiety that arise from the realization that you may be missing out on rewarding experiences that others are having. FOMO can be identified as an intra-personal trait that drives people to stay up to date of what other people are doing, among others on social media platforms. Drawing from the findings of a large-scale survey study among 2663 Flemish teenagers, this study explores the relationships between FOMO, social media use, problematic social media use (PSMU) and phubbing behavior. In line with our expectations, FOMO was a positive predictor of both how frequently teenagers use several social media platforms and of how many platforms they actively use. FOMO was a stronger predictor of the use of social media platforms that are more private (e.g., Facebook, Snapchat) than platforms that are more public in nature (e.g., Twitter, Youtube). FOMO predicted phubbing behavior both directly and indirectly via its relationship with PSMU. These findings support extant research that points towards FOMO as a factor explaining teenagers' social media use.