(Re)arranging "systems of care" in the early Ebola response in Sierra Leone: An interdisciplinary analysis.

Despite an expanding literature on Ebola-response, few studies detail or reflect on the responses of diverse systems of care. Little is known about how, why or in what ways, strategies of ill-health management were enacted locally, how health-systems power, authority and hierarchy were perceived and contested, or how other social systems, institutions and relationships shaped the response. This paper presents an interdisciplinary analysis of local responses in two early affected districts in Sierra Leone. Drawing on anthropological theories of social ordering and assemblage, we present an analysis of contrasting infection chains in three extended case studies from Bo and Moyamba districts. In contrast to previous scholarship which has understood local actions as being reactive (supporting or obstructing) to a national Ebola response, we show that local arrangements lead and shape responses. Our cases show how multiple, entangled, dynamic and co-existing systems of care influence these responses. Some individuals and communities collaborated with health authorities on measures like reporting and quarantine, others actively opposed them, or played an intermediary role. Collectively, formal health systems actors, local authorities and ordinary citizens negotiated and enacted new arrangements. These arrangements involved compromise and sometimes power was reconfigured. They were also shaped by wider political and historical contexts and by availability or absence of formal healthcare resources. Our research shows the critical importance of understanding how institutions and people involved in healthcare enact diverse "systems of care" and thereby shape Ebola response. Most importantly, our work underlines the need for alignment between formal health-systems and wider social, cultural, political and economic forms of organisation at family and community levels to improve crisis-response and promote sustainable care. In particular, health systems responders need to identify and engage with key brokers - or arrangers - in frontline care systems, with whom mutually acceptable, and effective, reconfigurations of care can be achieved.

Re-analysing Ebola spread in Sierra Leone: The importance of local social dynamics.

BACKGROUND: The 2013-15 Ebola epidemic in West Africa was the largest so far recorded, and mainly affected three adjacent countries, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. The worst affected country (in terms of confirmed cases) was Sierra Leone. The present paper looks at the epidemic in Sierra Leone. The epidemic in this country was a concatenation of local outbreaks. These local outbreaks are not well characterized through analysis using standard numerical techniques. In part, this reflects difficulties in record collection at the height of the epidemic. This paper offers a different approach, based on application of field-based techniques of social investigation that provide a richer understanding of the epidemic. METHODS: In a post-epidemic study (2016-18) of two districts (Bo and Moyamba) we use ethnographic data to reconstruct local infection pathways from evidence provided by affected communities, cross-referenced to records of the epidemic retained by the National Ebola Response Commission, now lodged in the Ebola Museum and Archive at Njala University. Our study documents and discusses local social and contextual factors largely missing from previously published studies. RESULTS: Our major finding is that the epidemic in Sierra Leone was a series of local outbreaks, some of which were better contained than others. In those that were not well contained, a number of contingent factors helps explain loss of control. Several numerical studies have drawn attention to the importance of local heterogeneities in the Sierra Leone Ebola epidemic. Our qualitative study throws specific light on a number of elements that explain these heterogeneities: the role of externalities, health system deficiencies, cultural considerations and local coping capacities. CONCLUSIONS: Social issues and local contingencies explain the spread of Ebola in Sierra Leone and are key to understanding heterogeneities in epidemiological data. Integrating ethnographic research into epidemic-response is critical to properly understand the patterns of spread and the opportunities to intervene. This conclusion has significant implications for future interdisciplinary research and interpretation of standard numerical data, and consequently for control of epidemic outbreaks.

Ebola and Public Authority: Saving Loved Ones in Sierra Leone.

It is unclear how public authorities shaped responses to Ebola in Sierra Leone. Focusing on one village, we analyze what happened when "staff, stuff, space, and systems" were absent. Mutuality between neighbors, linked to secret societies, necessitated collective care for infected loved ones, irrespective of the risks. Practical learning was quick. Numbers recovering were reported to be higher among people treated in hidden locations, compared to those taken to Ebola Treatment Centres. Our findings challenge positive post-Ebola narratives about international aid and military deployment. A morally appropriate people's science emerged under the radar of external scrutiny, including that of a paramount chief.