Imaging before transfer to designated pediatric trauma centers exposes children to excess radiation.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric trauma patients transferred to pediatric trauma centers (PTCs) often have imaging at the originating hospital (OH). The increased use of computed tomography (CT) raises concerns about malignancy risk from ionizing radiation leading many PTCs to adopt radiation dose reduction strategies. We hypothesized that pediatric trauma patients are exposed to excess radiation from imaging before transfer. METHODS: A retrospective review of 1,383 scans was performed on all trauma patients with CT imaging before transfer to our Level I PTC from 2010 to 2014. Demographics, type of imaging, necessity for repeat imaging, appropriateness of imaging, and radiation dose delivered were recorded. Comparative radiation dosing was calculated using the dose-length product (DLP [expressed in mGy-cm]). All CT scans except for CT of the abdomen and pelvis and CT of the head were excluded for complete DLP data issues. Scans were considered clinically appropriate if they met Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) recommendations (ATLS+) and not indicated if they did not meet ATLS criteria (ATLS-). Some scans were repeated because of technical issues. Median ΔDLP represents the difference in dose patients received at OH versus at PTC. RESULTS: A total of 673 patients were analyzed. Average age was 11 years, and 65.4% were male. Mean DLP at PTC was 54% lower for all analyzed scans compared with OH (p < 0.0001). DLP at PTC was 51% lower for CT of the abdomen and pelvis and 62% lower for CT of the head. Children received excess dose of 578.62 mGy-cm for scans at OH that were unnecessary. For ATLS+ imaging, children received a median excess of 444.42 mGy-cm of radiation at OH than they would have received had the scans been performed at PTCs using pediatric radiation reduction strategies. CONCLUSION: Pediatric trauma imaging performed at transferring institutions often does not adhere to ATLS recommendations and exceeds required ionizing radiation dosages. This study further confirms ATLS recommendations supporting prompt patient transfer without delay for imaging. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic study, level IV.

Routine repeat brain computed tomography in all children with mild traumatic brain injury may result in unnecessary radiation exposure.

BACKGROUND: Computed tomography (CT) for pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) is common. Evidence suggests that 1 in 1,200 children undergoing CT will die of malignancy from radiation exposure. Presently, there is no protocol for surveying children with mild TBI; repeat CT (rCT) is often performed. We hypothesized that rCT could be avoided. Outcomes of similar patients who underwent rCT were compared with those of patients followed by clinical examination alone. METHODS: An 8-year retrospective review was performed of patients admitted to a Level I pediatric trauma center with TBI, CT evidence of TBI, and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score of 14 to 15. There were two groups, those who underwent rCT (rCT+) and those who did not (rCT-). Data included age, Injury Severity Score (ISS), mechanism of injury, type of TBI, and outcome. Patients with coagulopathies, ventriculoperitoneal shunts, developmental disabilities, nonaccidental trauma, concomitant injuries, or medical problems resulting in intubation or sedation not attributed to TBI were excluded. RESULTS: Of 391 patients admitted with TBI, 120 were included in the study. A total of 106 patients were rCT+, and 14 were rCT-. rCT+ children were older (mean, 98.7 ± 7.3 vs. 35.3 ± 11.5 months; p = 0.0025) and more likely to have epidural hematoma (EDH) (100% rCT with EDH vs. 76% rCT all other TBI, p = 0.044). Mechanism of injury and mean ISS (15.2 ± 0.6 vs. 13.0 ± 1.1, p = 0.195) were not different between the groups. There were no worsening neurologic symptoms or need for surgery in rCT- children. rCT identified seven patients (6.6%) with CT progression of their injury. Five had an EDH, and two had a subarachnoid hemorrhage. Two children with EDH underwent operation. CONCLUSION: Our study indicates that routine rCT without evidence of clinical deterioration is not indicated in children with admission GCS score of 14 to 15 and TBI on CT scan. Children with EDH seem to have a higher potential for progression, and rCT seems to be indicated in this subgroup. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic study, level IV.

Efficacy of anatomic and physiologic indicators versus mechanism of injury criteria for trauma activation in pediatric emergencies.

BACKGROUND: In pediatric trauma patients, adult triage criteria that use mechanism of injury (MOI) have been shown to result in overactivation of trauma teams. Anatomy- and physiology-based (APB) triage criteria have been recommended to improve the accuracy of trauma activations. At our Level 1 academic tertiary pediatric trauma referral center, we recently changed our triage criteria by emphasizing APB criteria and de-emphasizing MOI. This study was conducted to analyze the resulting change in accuracy of activations. METHODS: This was a criterion standard, cohort-controlled retrospective study comparing patients triaged by MOI criteria (January 2006 to March 2009) to those triaged by APB criteria (April 2009 to June 2010). Patients were subdivided according to trauma activation level as major (TMaj), minor (TMin), or consult (TC). Demographic, vital sign, injury pattern, trauma activation level, and emergency department disposition data were collected. Triage criteria were retrospectively applied to the patients according to the criteria that were in effect when they arrived. Patients were assigned to either high-risk (HR) or low-risk (LR) groups based on the need for urgent intervention (emergency department procedure, emergent operation, or blood transfusion), admission to intensive care unit, Injury Severity Score [ISS] of greater than 12, or death. Sensitivity and specificity of major activations were calculated using the following groups: true positive, trauma activation and HR; false positive, trauma activation and LR, false negative, no trauma activation and HR; true negative, no trauma activation and LR. Comparisons were then made between the MOI to the APB patients. RESULTS: The MOI and APB patients were similar in race (p = 0.201), sex (p = 0.639), and age (p = 0.643). The APB criteria resulted in 14% TMaj, 35% TMin, and 51% TC, compared with 41%, 23%, and 36%, respectively, for MOI. Median ISS in the APB group was 16 for TMaj, 5 for TMin, and 4 for TC compared with 8, 4, and 4, respectively, for MOI. Sensitivity for trauma activation of HR patients was 89.2% versus 89.1% (equivalent), while specificity increased from 45.8% to 65.8% for MOI versus APB, respectively. CONCLUSION: For pediatric trauma patients, the emphasis on APB triage criteria and de-emphasis on MOI results in selection of higher-acuity patients for major activation while maintaining acceptable undertriage and overtriage rates overall. This improved accuracy of major activation results in a more cost-efficient resource use and fewer unnecessary disruptions for the surgeon, operating room, and other staff while maintaining appropriate capture and evaluation of trauma patients. The low sensitivity noted in both the MOI and APB groups is largely caused by the broad definition of HR patients used in this study. We recommend the use of APB criteria for pediatric trauma triage. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic study, level IV.

Long-term follow-up of children with nonoperative management of blunt splenic trauma.

BACKGROUND: : The effectiveness of nonoperative management (NOM) of blunt splenic injuries (BSIs) in children is established; however, only limited data of their long-term follow-up exist. We hypothesize that long-term follow-up verifies that NOM of BSI in children is safe and effective. METHODS: : From 1993 to 2008, 153 children (1-17 years, mean = 12) with BSI were admitted. Patients were contacted by telephone and answered a standardized questionnaire. Medical records were reviewed to validate injury grade, hospital stay, and complications. RESULTS: : Eighty patients (52%) participated; 18 were excluded (8 splenectomies, 2 splenorraphies, 3 comatose, 2 language barriers, and 3 with unavailable records). Mean follow-up of the remaining 62 patients was 74 months (range, 5-165 months). There were 9 grade I, 9 grade II, 22 grade III, 20 grade IV, and 2 grade V injuries. Mechanism of injury was motor vehicle crashes (14), falls (11), all terrain vehicle (ATV) crashes (10), snow recreation related (14), and other recreation (13). Two patients were readmitted for spleen complications (splenic cyst and hematoma), but neither required additional treatment. Seven patients reported potential spleen-related complications: six immunologic (asthma, rashes, and increased illness), two abdominal pain, and two psychiatric related to fear of reinjuring their spleen. Three children sustained a second BSI, and none required surgical intervention. CONCLUSIONS: : Long-term follow-up indicates that our protocol for NOM of BSI in children is safe, including secondary injuries. However, this study indicates that children who sustain BSI may require more counseling than presently provided. With an intact spleen, fear of immunologic dysfunction is irrational and indicates a lack of understanding at discharge. In addition, more intensive investigation and interventions for families that may suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder or related disorders appears indicated.

Angiographic embolization is safe and effective therapy for blunt abdominal solid organ injury in children.

BACKGROUND: : Angiographic embolization (AE) is used to control hemorrhage in adult blunt liver, spleen, and kidney (ASO) injuries. Pediatric experience with AE for blunt ASO injuries is limited. We reviewed our use of AE to control bleeding pediatric blunt ASO injuries for efficacy and safety. METHODS: : A 5-year review (trauma registry and charts) of children (age < or = 16 years) who had AE for hemorrhage from blunt ASO injuries. Nonoperative management was attempted in all stable children with blunt ASO injuries. Children with ongoing hemorrhage underwent AE. The success of AE and complications were evaluated. Data were reviewed on injury type and grade, injury severity score, length of intensive care unit stay (LOS-ICU) and length of hospital stay (LOS), and complications. RESULTS: : One hundred twenty-seven patients with 149 blunt ASO injuries were identified (72 spleen, 51 liver, and 26 renal). Two children had immediate splenectomies. Seven children underwent AE: two spleen (grades IV and V), two liver (grades III and IV), and three grade IV renal injuries. Three children received blood before embolization. Mean age and injury severity score were 12.3 years +/- 3.7 years and 22.4 +/- 10.0,respecyively. Mean intensive care unit stay was 4.8 days +/- 5.5 days with a mean length of hospital stay of 12.8 days +/- 5.5 days. Embolization was successful in all children; there were no procedure-related complications. Four minor complications occurred; two pleural effusions and two patients with transient hypertension. A nephroblastoma was later found in one renal injury requiring nephrectomy. CONCLUSIONS: : AE is a safe and an effective technique for controlling hemorrhage from blunt ASO injuries in select pediatric patients.

Evaluation of functionality after head injury in adolescents.

BACKGROUND: The Occupational Therapy Head Injury Mini Screen (OT HIMS) is a screening tool for patients admitted with traumatic brain injury (TBI) in the acute care setting. It is a combination of the Galveston Orientation and Amnesia Test (GOAT) and the Cognistat (formally the Neurobehavioral Cognitive Status Examination). Its purpose is to identify cognitive deficits in patients and to provide education for patients on the impact of these deficits on daily living. Our hypothesis for this study was that cognitive functionality outcome varies with severity of head injury (manifested by Glasgow Coma Scale [GCS]) at admission and tests that identify cognitive deficits can be reserved for patients admitted with severe head injury. METHODS: Data were prospectively collected for all patients with TBI (DRG International Classification of Diseases-9th Rev.-Clinical Modification codes 800.0-801.99 + 850-859.9), aged 13-21 years, over 10 years. The inclusion criteria are patients had to be awake and have adequate physical function to complete the test. Patients with cognitive deficits were identified using GOAT and Cognistat. Preexistent deficits were also identified. Scores on OT HIMS were compared with GCS at admission. Outcomes also included discharge to home or rehabilitation centers. Hospital deaths were not included in the study. RESULTS: Six hundred nine patients were reviewed, and 248 were administered the OT HIMS. Eighty-three suffered some impairment. The mean GCS for the 248 patients was 13.96 (+/-2.16). A coefficient of correlation between GCS and GOAT score of only 0.224 and an R2 value of 0.050 indicated no correlation between these results. Comparing GCS and the presence of impairment identified by Cognistat yielded an R2 value of 0.093, indicating no correlation between these parameters. Among the patients whose results showed cognitive deficits on OT HIMS, 38% had impairments before injury. Interestingly, only 58% of patients with deficits before injury also demonstrated impairments on OT HIMS. Of the 248 patients, 12 went to rehabilitation centers and this was not correlated with GCS. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, admission GCS did not predict performance on the OT HIMS after injury in this cohort of patients with adequate recovery to take the examination. Cognitive functionality can be impaired after TBI of even minimal degree. All patients admitted for TBI should be screened for cognitive deficits before discharge. Long-term follow-up for this group must be performed for maximal therapy and optimal outcomes.

Initial resection of potentially viable tissue is not optimal treatment for grades II-IV pancreatic injuries.

PURPOSE: This study was designed to ascertain the optimal therapy and diagnostics for children with pancreatic injury. METHODS: From January 1, 2001 to January 1, 2007, all children (newborn to 17 years) who presented to this Level I trauma center with demonstrated pancreatic injury were prospectively entered into the TRACS IV system and reviewed for injury type, diagnostics, therapy, demographics, and outcome. RESULTS: Fourteen children sustained grade II or higher pancreatic injury during this period. CT scan was performed for diagnosis in all cases. There were 11 boys and 3 girls, and mean age was 6.9 (range, 2-16) years. There were five grade II injuries, four grade III injuries, four grade IV injuries, and one grade V injury. All grade II injuries were treated successfully nonoperatively with observation. The nine grade III-IV injuries all underwent operative external drainage without pancreatectomy or stent placement. The single grade V injury died of multiple associated injuries after operative intervention. No pseudocysts developed in these children. All children have normal pancreatic function, and all except one have normal anatomy on follow-up scans. Early exploration and drainage directly reduces length of stay. CONCLUSION: Grade II pancreatic injuries do not require routine surgical exploration in children. Grade III and IV injuries in this series were treated with expeditious drainage of the pancreatic bed and did not require routine pancreatectomy or endoscopic stent [corrected] placement as some have recommended. Early drainage shortens hospital stay, and outcomes from this therapy are excellent. Pancreatic resection of exocrine defunctionalized segments of pancreas may be performed safely electively after acute injury if necessary, but anecdotal information from this series indicates that too may not be necessary. Grade V injuries often are accompanied by multiple other organ injuries and are associated with a significant mortality rate. A multi-institutional investigation is warranted to reassess optimal therapy for pancreatic injury in children.

The safety and efficacy of spinal anesthesia for surgery in infants: the Vermont Infant Spinal Registry.

Studies with modest numbers of patients have suggested that spinal anesthesia in infants is associated with a very infrequent incidence of complications, such as hypoxemia, bradycardia, and postoperative apnea. Although spinal anesthesia would seem to be a logical alternative to general anesthesia for many surgical procedures, it remains an underutilized technique. Since 1978, clinical data concerning all infants undergoing spinal anesthesia at the University of Vermont have been prospectively recorded. In all, 1554 patients have been studied. Anesthesia was performed by anesthesia trainees and attending anesthesiologists. The success rate for LP was 97.4%. An adequate level of spinal anesthesia was achieved in 95.4% of cases. The average time required to induce spinal anesthesia was 10 min. Oxygen hemoglobin desaturation to <90% was observed in 10 patients. Bradycardia (heart rate <100 bpm) occurred in 24 patients (1.6%). This study confirms the infrequent incidence of complications associated with spinal anesthesia in infants. Spinal anesthesia can be performed safely, efficiently, and with the expectation of a high degree of success. Spinal anesthesia should be strongly considered as an alternative to general anesthesia for lower abdominal and lower extremity surgery in infants.

Role of interval appendectomy in the management of complicated appendicitis in children.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study was to ascertain the optimal treatment for children with complicated appendicitis. We reviewed an inception cohort of children with documented complicated appendicitis to develop criteria for interval appendectomy. We compared the outcomes of two treatments: immediate operation and interval appendectomy. METHODS: Children with complicated appendicitis were separated into two groups. Group 1 patients had had symptoms of complicated appendicitis for less than 72 hours or appeared toxic. Group 2 patients had had symptoms of complicated appendicitis for longer than 72 hours and did not appear toxic. Group 1 underwent immediate operation treated by criteria previously published. Group 2 patients were treated in hospital with triple antibiotics until they were afebrile, had normal white blood cell counts, tolerated an oral diet, and had adequate pain control. They were discharged on oral metronidazole or metronidazole plus Bactrim for 6 weeks and then underwent interval appendectomy. RESULTS: A total of 86 children had complicated appendicitis; 59 were operated on immediately, and 27 underwent an interval appendectomy. Complications included one wound infection and two intraabdominal abscesses (all in group 1). There was one death (group 1). The length of stay for the immediate operation group was 4.9 +/- 1.7 days; the initial-admission length of stay for the interval appendectomy group was 4.1 +/- 1.0 days with a subsequent postoperative stay of 0.9 +/- 0.8 days. One patient in the interval appendectomy group was treated off protocol. CONCLUSIONS: Treating selected children with interval appendectomy led to a decrease in complications and a shorter length of stay in this limited population. Interval appendectomy is a safe, cost-effective, useful adjunct treatment for children with complicated appendicitis.

Early evaluation and resuscitation of the pediatric trauma patient.

Trauma is the leading case of death for children in the United States. Effective initial resuscitation of pediatric trauma patients can reduce mortality. Guidelines have been developed to facilitate patient care in a systematic and productive manner. Advances have been made in both diagnostic and therapeutic methods. The evaluation and treatment of trauma patients will continue to engage pediatric surgeons as efforts in trauma prevention become more successful.

The diagnosis and management of children with blunt injury of the chest.

Thoracic trauma remains a major source of morbidity and mortality in injured children, and is second only to brain injuries as a cause of death. The presence of a chest injury increases an injured child's mortality by 20-fold. Greater than 80% of chest injuries in children are secondary to blunt trauma. The compliant chest wall in children makes pulmonary contusions and rib fractures the most common chest injuries in children. Injuries to the great vessels, esophagus, and diaphragm are rare. Failure to promptly diagnose and treat these injuries results in increased morbidity and mortality.

Management of blunt pediatric hepatic and splenic injury: similar process, different outcome.

Though nonoperative management of stable children with blunt solid organ injury has been shown to be effective, we hypothesize that hepatic injuries represent a higher mortality risk than splenic injuries and that combination hepatosplenic injury is a marker of even greater mortality potential. A multi-institutional pediatric trauma registry was queried for all children with blunt injuries to the liver (H) or spleen (S), excluding those with severe brain injury. Incidence and mortality of H, S, and all combinations of H/S were compared. The mortality rate for patients with H was significantly higher (2.5%) than in patients with S (0.7%), and the overall mortality of H/S (8.6%) was significantly higher than both. Furthermore, the mortality of H/S injuries was associated with increasing severity of either the hepatic or splenic injury. In childhood injury, H and S occur with almost equal frequency but with different mortality, and H/S is less common but associated with increased mortality.

A simple mathematical modification of TRISS markedly improves calibration.

BACKGROUND: TRISS has reigned as the preeminent trauma outcome prediction model for 20 years. Despite this endorsement, the calibration of TRISS has been poor in most data sets where it has been examined. We hypothesized that the lack of calibration of TRISS was because of the inappropriate mathematical specification of the model that TRISS is based on, rather than the predictors in the model. In particular, we hypothesized that the nonlinearity of the Injury Severity Score (ISS) in the log odds of death was responsible for the poor calibration of TRISS, and further, that this nonlinearity could be corrected by the simple addition of an ISS squared term to the TRISS model. METHODS: We examined ISS in the log odds of mortality for linearity in one large trauma data set, the National Pediatric Trauma Registry (NPTR) (n = 53,113 from 1985-1996; mortality, 1.3%); and two small data sets, the University of New Mexico (UNM) (n = 3,142 from 1991-1995; mortality, 8.6%) and Portland, Oregon (PORT) (n = 2,916 from 1990-1994; mortality, 1.75%). In addition, in the NPTR we compared the calibration of TRISS models with and without linearity in the log odds of death. RESULTS: In the NPTR, ISS was profoundly nonlinear in the log odds of death for both blunt and penetrating trauma (p < 0.001). Moreover, the overall calibration of the TRISS model for the NPTR data was significantly improved when the nonlinearity of ISS was corrected by the addition of a quadratic ISS term as demonstrated by a 70% reduction (improvement) in the Hosmer-Lemeshow statistic. Interestingly, the addition of the ISS squared term did not affect the discrimination of the model. The log odds of survival in the UNM and PORT data sets were also better modeled when an ISS squared term was added (UNM, p = 0 0.052; PORT, p = 0.014), but improvements in the Hosmer-Lemeshow statistic were smaller, possibly because of the small size of these data sets. CONCLUSION: The TRISS model for outcome prediction currently uses ISS in a mathematically inappropriate way that impairs the calibration, but not the discrimination, of its predictions. If TRISS is to continue as the prediction standard for trauma, a quadratic ISS term must be added to the model. In the future, outcome prediction models should undergo thorough statistical modeling and evaluation before being released. Injury severity descriptors other than ISS (such as ASCOT, ICISS, or NISS) may require other modeling techniques to optimize the calibration of survival models that use these injury scores.

Imaging of the injured child: important questions answered quickly and correctly.

Diagnostic imaging has assisted dramatically in the care of the injured child. The avoidance of unnecessary laparotomy in 35-85% of cases depending on the series reviewed is a major improvement in care. Additionally, non-operative treatment has clearly decreased the number of splenectomies children significantly undergo. Further improvements will only result in more accurate and focused interventions and continue to improve results. Physicians must remember, however, that trauma in children remains a surgical disease. Advances in imaging techniques have reduced operative intervention, but now children are exposed to far more potential risks and morbidity. Diagnoses evolve with time and the surgeon must be ready to take any injured child to the operating room for treatment when warranted at a moment's notice.

Multiple head injuries in rats: effects on behavior.

BACKGROUND: Evidence suggests that mild head injuries in humans can result in cumulative damage. No investigation to date has considered the effects of multiple subacute mild head injuries in an animal model. METHODS: Forty-one male Long-Evans hooded rats were trained in a Morris water maze. All animals were fitted with a hollow intracranial screw. Concussions were generated using a fluid percussion device. Animals were then evaluated in the water maze until performance returned to baseline. Control animals received no concussions. The remaining animals were randomized to receive one, two, or three concussions. Animals were allowed to return to baseline after each concussion and were then killed. Motor performance was evaluated on a balance beam both before and after concussions. RESULTS: After one concussion, 85% of animals showed performance deviation from baseline as measured by time to reach the platform, returning to baseline within a mean of 14.0 trials. After two concussions, 48% of animals showed deviation, with a mean return to baseline of 6.8 trials. After three concussions, 25% of animals showed deviation, with a mean return to baseline of 2.3 trials. Of postconcussive animals, 42% developed new inconsistent baseline levels of performance. Balance beam performance was unaffected. CONCLUSION: Multiple concussions cause immediate transient impairment in spatial recognition and have extended effects on baseline performance in rats. Motor performance is not affected.