Breathing Right or Left! The Effects of Unilateral Nostril Breathing on Psychological and Cognitive Wellbeing: A Pilot Study.

The impact of controlled breathing on cognitive and affective processing has been recognized since ancient times, giving rise to multiple practices aimed at achieving different psychophysical states, mostly related to mental clarity and focus, stress reduction, and relaxation. Previous scientific research explored the effects of forced unilateral nostril breathing (UNB) on brain activity and emotional and cognitive functions. Some evidence concluded that it had a contralateral effect, while other studies presented controversial results, making it difficult to come to an unambiguous interpretation. Also, a few studies specifically addressed wellbeing. In the present study, we invited a pilot sample of 20 participants to take part in an 8-day training program for breathing, and each person was assigned to either a unilateral right nostril (URNB) or left nostril breathing condition (ULNB). Then, each day, we assessed the participants' wellbeing indices using their moods and mind wandering scales. The results revealed that, after the daily practice, both groups reported improved wellbeing perception. However, the effect was specifically related to the nostril involved. URNB produced more benefits in terms of stress reduction and relaxation, while ULNB significantly and increasingly reduced mind-wandering occurrences over time. Our results suggest that UNB can be effectively used to increase wellbeing in the general population. Additionally, they support the idea that understanding the effects of unilateral breathing on wellbeing and cognition requires a complex interpretive model with multiple brain networks to address bottom-up and top-down processes.

BCI Applications to Creativity: Review and Future Directions, from little-c to C2.

BCI devices are increasingly being used to create interactive interfaces between users and their own psychophysiological signals. Over the years, these systems have seen strong development as they can enable people with limited mobility to make certain decisions to alter their environment. Additionally, their portability and ease of use have allowed a field of research to flourish for the study of cognitive and emotional processes in natural settings. The study of creativity, especially little creativity (little-c), is one example, although the results of this cutting-edge research are often poorly systematized. The purpose of the present paper, therefore, was to conduct a scoping review to describe and systematize the various studies that have been conducted on the application potential of BCI to the field of creativity. Twenty-two papers were selected that collect information on different aspects of creativity, including clinical applications; art experience in settings with high ecological validity; BCI for creative content creation, and participants' engagement. Critical issues and potentialities of this promising area of study are also presented. Implications for future developments towards multi-brain creativity settings and C2 are discussed.

Using Neurofeedback to Restore Inter-Hemispheric Imbalance: A Study Protocol for Adults With Dyslexia.

Neurofunctional models of developmental dyslexia (DD) point out disruption of the left-lateralized reading network. In individuals with DD, the left temporo-parietal (TP) regions are underactivated during reading tasks and a dysfunctional activation of the contralateral regions is reported. After a successful reading intervention, left TP lateralization was found to be increased in children with DD. Previous studies measured the effect of modulating the excitability of the left TP cortex using non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) in individuals with reading difficulties, showing significant reading improvements. NIBS exclusion criteria and safety guidelines may limit its application in settings without medical supervision and in younger populations. Neurofeedback (NF) training could be an alternative intervention method for modulating the inter-hemispheric balance of the temporal-parietal regions in DD. To date, the effect of NF on reading has been scarcely investigated. Few protocols increasing beta activity in underactivated areas showed improved reading outcomes. However, none of the previous studies designed the NF intervention based on a neurofunctional model of DD. We aim to propose a study protocol for testing the efficacy of a NF training specifically designed for inducing a functional hemispheric imbalance of the tempo-parietal regions in adults with DD. A randomized clinical trial aimed at comparing two experimental conditions is described: (a) Enhancing left beta/theta power ratio NF training in combination with reducing right beta/theta power ratio NF training and (b) sham NF training. Clinical Trial Registration: www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier [NCT04989088].

Gender Differences and Unfairness Processing during Economic and Moral Decision-Making: A fNIRS Study.

Decisional conflicts have been investigated with social decision-making tasks, which represent good models to elicit social and emotional dynamics, including fairness perception. To explore these issues, we created two modified versions of the UG framed within an economic vs. a moral context that included two kinds of unfair offers: advantageous (upside, U) or disadvantageous (downside, D) from the responder's perspective, and vice-versa for the proponent. The hemodynamic activity of 36 participants, 20 females and 16 males, was continuously recorded with fNIRS to investigate the presence of general or specific circuits between the different experimental conditions. Results showed that disadvantageous offers (D) are associated with an increased widespread cortical activation. Furthermore, we found that advantageous moral choices at the expense of others (U) were related to the activation of the right prefrontal cortex. Finally, we found gender-related differences in brain activations in the different frameworks. In particular, the DLPFC was recruited by females during the economic task, and by males during the moral frame. In conclusion, the present study confirmed and expanded previous data about the role of the prefrontal cortices in decision-making, suggesting the need for further studies to understand better the different prefrontal networks serving moral and economic decisions also considering gender-related differences.

When gratitude and cooperation between friends affect inter-brain connectivity for EEG.

BACKGROUND: Recently several studies in the psychological and social field have investigated the social function of gift exchange as a useful way for the consolidation of interpersonal and social relationships and the implementation of prosocial behaviors. Specifically, the present research wanted to explore if gift exchange, increased emotional sharing, gratitude and interpersonal cooperation, leading to an improvement in cognitive and behavioral performance. In this regard, neural connectivity and cognitive performance of 14 pairs of friends were recorded during the development of a joint attention task that involved a gift exchange at the beginning or halfway through the task. The moment of gift exchange was randomized within the pairs: for seven couples, it happened at task beginning, for the remaining seven later. Individuals' simultaneous brain activity was recorded through the use of two electroencephalograms (EEG) systems that were used in hyperscanning. RESULTS: The results showed that after gift exchange there was an improvement in behavioral performance in terms of accuracy. For what concerns EEG, instead, an increase of delta and theta activation was observed in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) when gift exchange occurred at the beginning of the task. Furthermore, an increase in neural connectivity for delta and theta bands was observed. CONCLUSION: The present research provides a significant contribution to the exploration of the factors contributing to the strengthening of social bonds, increasing cooperation, gratitude and prosocial behavior.

Leader-employee emotional "interpersonal tuning".An EEG coherence study.

Empirical management research has focused more on the investigation of important interpersonal factors that could be beneficial for a company's well-being, including emotional and empathic engagement between managers and employees. The capacity to understand and mirror others' feelings could result in a mutual adaptation that generates interpersonal tuning (IT). In the present study, we measured IT by applying a hyperscanning approach with simultaneous recording of electroencephalographic (EEG) signals from two participants interacting together. Eleven leaders and 11 employees were recruited and asked to role-play an employee performance review with a rating (R) or no rating (NR) condition. In the NR condition leaders describe by words the employee's proficiency, while in R they provided a quantitative rating. The NR condition emerged as a more engaging situation in terms of empathic responses and mirroring. This difference was detectable from the localization of neurophysiological effects over the frontopolar and frontal brain areas, and the higher synchronization of EEG delta frequency coherence. Behavioral results also revealed an increase of self-perceived emotional tuning, agreement on content, and interpersonal cooperation in the NR condition compared to R condition. These effects were present in both leaders and employees and have several implications for social and company well-being.

Remembering faces: The effects of emotional valence and temporal recency.

It is known that the longer an information has been memorized, the stronger is its memory trace, and that emotionally-valenced information is more solid than neutral one. We investigated whether the emotional content of recent information might enhance its memory, making it as familiar as information known for a long time. We compared ERPs alternately recorded in response to old and solid information from long term memory (i.e., faces of popular movie stars), to recently acquired emotional information (faces of fictional characters), and to completely new information (faces of previously unknown people). Initially participants familiarized with the fictional police dossiers of 10 victims of dramatic deaths (recent faces), twice a day for seven days before EEG recordings. Recent faces were compared with faces of movie stars and unknown faces in an old/new recognition task. N200 and FN400 responses were affected by face familiarity (with no difference between old and recent faces), while parietal late positivity (LP) was sensitive to temporal recency, being it greater to old than recent faces. Interestingly, LP amplitude was similar for old and recent own-sex faces (victims) that were therefore equally memorable. It is shown that emotional memory can overcome temporal recency thus improving memory recall.

To Rate or Not to Rate? Autonomic Response and Psychological Well-being of Employees During Performance Review.

Organizational research started including neurosciences exploring pivotal phenomena and promoting organizational well-being. Leadership was investigated by assessing psychophysiological responses during performance review characterized by narrative or quantitative assessments and their effects on employees' well-being. As is known, rating could be perceived as threatening for employees' ranking and status perception, leading to avoidant behaviors. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY: Here, manager-employee dyads were assigned to 2 conditions: in the nonrate scenario, managers were asked to describe the employee's performance; in the rate one, they had to provide a quantitative rating. Skin conductance level and response and heart rate indices were continuously recorded. FINDINGS: Dyads in nonrate condition showed higher arousal-related responses (skin conductance level and skin conductance response), perhaps highlighting an increased engagement triggered by a rewarding exchange. Conversely, in rate condition, employees showed higher heart rate, usually related to negative and stressful conditions, and avoidant behaviors. ORIGINALITY/VALUE: Results are discussed for their possible applications to employees' well-being.

A gift for gratitude and cooperative behavior: brain and cognitive effects.

Recently, different psychological studies have been interested in identifying the factors that regulate the development and maintenance of long-lasting interpersonal and social relationships. Specifically, the present research explored the link between gift exchange, gratitude and cognitive effects. The behavioral performance and neural activity of 32 participants were recorded during a cooperative game to be played before and after gift exchange. Specifically, participants had to perform the task coupled with a dear friend. Half of the couples were asked to exchange a gift before the task performance; the other half was asked to exchange a gift halfway through the task performance. For hemodynamic brain responses, functional near-infrared spectroscopy was used. Results showed that an increase in cognitive performance occurred after the exchange of gifts, with improved accuracy and lower response times in task performance. Regarding hemodynamic responses, an increase in oxygenated hemoglobin was detected, especially in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex following the gift exchange. Furthermore, it was observed that gift exchange before the beginning of the task increased the performance level. The present study provides a significant contribution to the identification of those factors that enable the increased cognitive performance based on cooperative relationships.

Functional EEG connectivity during competition.

BACKGROUND: Social behavior and interactions pervasively shape and influence our lives and relationships. Competition, in particular, has become a core topic in social neuroscience since it stresses the relevance and salience of social comparison processes between the inter-agents that are involved in a common task. The majority of studies, however, investigated such kind of social interaction via one-person individual paradigms, thus not taking into account relevant information concerning interdependent participants' behavioral and neural responses. In the present study, dyads of volunteers participated in a hyperscanning paradigm and competed in a computerized attention task while their electrophysiological (EEG) activity and performance were monitored and recorded. Behavioral data and inter-brain coupling measures based on EEG frequency data were then computed and compared across different experimental conditions: a control condition (individual task, t0), a first competitive condition (pre-feedback condition, t1), and a second competitive condition following a positive reinforcing feedback (post-feedback condition, t2). RESULTS: Results showed that during competitive tasks participants' performance was improved with respect to control condition (reduced response times and error rates), with a further specific improvement after receiving a reinforcing feedback. Concurrently, we observed a reduction of inter-brain functional connectivity (primarily involving bilateral prefrontal areas) for slower EEG frequency bands (delta and theta). Finally, correlation analyses highlighted a significant association between cognitive performance and inter-brain connectivity measures. CONCLUSIONS: The present results may help identifying specific patterns of behavioral and inter-brain coupling measures associated to competition and processing of social reinforcements.

Emotion Regulation in Schizophrenia: A Pilot Clinical Intervention as Assessed by EEG and Optical Imaging (Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy).

Previous research on Schizophrenia (S) revealed anomalies in brain responsiveness during emotion processing, as shown by neuroimaging and electroencephalography (EEG) measures. Nonetheless preserved capacities to explicitly evaluate the emotional significance of affective stimuli in term of valence have been found. The present study applied functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) and EEG to explore the spatial and temporal expressions of emotion processing in the brain before (T0) and after (T2) an emotional Neurofeedback (NF) training of patients, assigned to the control or the experimental group. Explicit measures revealed correct identifications of stimuli emotional valence before (T0) and after (T2) the treatment, while implicit measures (EEG and fNIRS) showed a modulation and increased competencies only after the NF (T2), with more balanced prefrontal activity.

Promoting Creativity Through Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS). A Critical Review.

Creativity, meant as the ability to produce novel, original and suitable ideas, has received increased attention by research in the last years, especially from neuroaesthetics and social neuroscience. Besides the research conducted on the neural correlates of such capacities, previous work tried to answer the question of whether it is possible to enhance creativity through cognitive and neural stimulation. In particular, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been applied to increase neuronal excitability in those areas related to creativity. However, being a complex construct that applies to a huge variety of situations, available results are often confusing and inconsistent. Thus, in the present critical review, after selecting original research articles investigating creativity with tDCS, results will be reviewed and framed according to the different effects of tDCS and its underlying mechanisms, which can be defined as follows: the promotion of self-focused attention; the disruption of inhibiting mechanisms; the enhancement of creative thinking; the promotion of artistic enactment. Finally, a theoretical perspective, the creative on/off model, will be provided to integrate the reported evidence with respect to both anatomical and functional issues and propose a cognitive explanation of the emergence of creative thinking.

May the Best Joint-Actions Win: Physiological Linkage During Competition.

Previous work showed that, when we interact with other people, an alignment of psychophysiological measures occur as a clue about the intensity of the social interaction. Available evidence highlighted increase autonomic synchrony, known as physiological linkage, during intense dyadic situations, like conflictual conversations within romantic couples, friends, or therapeutic settings. Starting from the idea that higher physiological linkage could support better performance and be correlated with approach attitudes (Behavioral Activation System, BAS), in the present study a conflictual situation was proposed by making subjects compete during an attentional task and stressing the importance to win as a measure of future professional success. Autonomic activity (electrodermal: skin conductance level and response: SCL, SCR; and cardiovascular indices: heart rate: HR) was recorded during the task, where subjects received trial-related feedbacks on their performance, and an average score halfway which (fictitiously) assessed their position in terms of accuracy and reaction times with respect to the opponent. In parallel, behavioral inhibition and activation have been assessed by means of the Behavioral Inhibition/Activation System Questionnaire (BIS/BAS). 32 subjects coupled in 16 dyads were recruited. Intra-subject analyses revealed that, after the general evaluation assessing a winning condition, the behavioral performance improved and the electrodermal response increased. Also, correlational analyses showed a relation between BAS, and specifically BAS reward, with SCR. Inter-subject analyses showed higher synchrony in SCR and HR after the feedback. Such results confirm the increased synchronic effect after a highly conflictual condition, and the presence of a relation between subjective performance, approach-related motivations, and physiological linkage.

Functional brain connectivity when cooperation fails.

Functional connectivity during cooperative actions is an important topic in social neuroscience that has yet to be answered. Here, we examined the effects of administration of (fictitious) negative social feedback in relation to cooperative capabilities. Cognitive performance and neural activation underlying the execution of joint actions was recorded with functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) on prefrontal regions during a task where pairs of participants received negative feedback after their joint action. Performance (error rates (ERs) and response times (RTs)) and intra- and inter-brain connectivity indices were computed, along with the ConIndex (inter-brain/intra-brain connectivity). Finally, correlational measures were considered to assess the relation between these different measures. Results showed that the negative feedback was able to modulate participants' responses for both behavioral and neural components. Cognitive performance was decreased after the feedback. Moreover, decreased inter-brain connectivity and increased intra-brain connectivity was induced by the feedback, whereas the cooperative task pre-feedback condition was able to increase the brain-to-brain coupling, mainly localized within the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Finally, the presence of significant correlations between RTs and inter-brain connectivity revealed that ineffective joint action produces the worst cognitive performance and a more 'individual strategy' for brain activity, limiting the inter-brain connectivity. The present study provides a significant contribution to the identification of patterns of intra- and inter-brain functional connectivity when negative social reinforcement is provided in relation to cooperative actions.

EEG functional connectivity and brain-to-brain coupling in failing cognitive strategies.

Cooperation behavior is a core question of study on social neuroscience. In the present study, inter-brain functional connectivity and cognitive performance were considered during joint which was failing. The cognitive performance and the EEG (brain oscillations from delta to beta) underlying the execution of joint-actions were recorded when dyads of participants executed synchronicity game and received reinforcing negative feedbacks A pre-feedback condition (cooperation) and a control condition (individual task, T0) were provided as well as a check for possible learning effect (time series analysis). Finally, correlation analysis was considered to assess the relation between behavioral and physiological levels. Results showed that the external feedback was able to modulate participants' responses in both behavioral and neural components with increased RTs and ERs after the negative reinforcement. Similarly, a reduced inter-brain connectivity was found, mainly localized within the superior frontal regions, and for low-frequency bands (delta and theta). In contrast pre-feedback condition showed the best performance in terms of both behavioral and brain-to-brain coupling activity. Moreover, the presence of significant correlations between RTs and inter-brain connectivity revealed that the failing cooperation induces significant negative effects on the cognitive and brain strategy in comparison with cooperative (pre-feedback) and individual (control) condition. The present study provides significant contribution to the identification of patterns of cognitive behavior and functional connectivity when social reinforcement is provided within dyads of participants by using a hyperscanning approach.

Cooperate or not cooperate EEG, autonomic, and behavioral correlates of ineffective joint strategies.

Introduction: The neural activity in response to ineffective joint actions was explored in the present study. Subjects involved in a cooperative but frustrating task (poor performance as manipulated by an external feedback) were required to cooperate (T1) during an attentional task in a way to synchronize their responses and obtain better outcomes. Methods: We manipulated their strategies by providing false feedbacks (T2) signaling the incapacity to create a synergy, which was reinforced by a general negative evaluation halfway through the game. A control condition was provided (no cooperation required, T0) as well as a check for possible learning effect (time series analysis). The effects of the feedback in modulating subjects' behavioral performance and electrocortical activity were explored by means of brain oscillations (delta, theta, alpha, beta) and autonomic activity (heart rate, HR; skin conductance activity, SCR). Results: Results showed a specific pattern of behavioral, neural, and peripheral responses after the social feedback. In fact, within this condition, worse behavioral outcomes emerged, with longer response times with respect to the prefeedback one. In parallel, a specific right-lateralized effect was observed over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), with increased delta and theta power compared to the previous condition. Moreover, increased SCR was observed with respect to the first part. Conclusions: Two interpretations are put forward to explain the present findings: 1) the contribution of negative emotions in response to failing interactions or 2) a motivational disengagement toward goal-oriented cooperation elicited by frustrating evaluations.