Investigating the Combined Use of Enrichment Factor and Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Modelling for Precipitation Sample Source Identification: A Case Study in North Carolina, USA.

Pollutants emitted into the air not only have local effect but can also affect areas further from the source. The goal of this study was to assess a method for identifying the sources of element pollution in rainwater using enrichment factors supported by Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. In this study, we collected nineteen rainwater samples at the two locations of Durham and Chimney Ridge in North Carolina, USA in July of 2014. The samples were analyzed for pH, conductivity and levels of major ions and a range of trace elements. These data showed that the pH of precipitation ranged between 3.91 and 6.65, with an average value of 4.98. The average electrical conductivity was 15.58 and 17.7 µS/cm for rainwater collected at Durham and Chimney Ridge, respectively. The lowest concentration of the elements analyzed was for thorium (Th) with an average concentration of 0.002 ppb, whereas the highest elemental concentration was for calcium (Ca) with an average concentration of 980.3 ppb. Enrichment factors for trace elements were assessed within three different groups as: (1) rarely enriched, (2) significantly enriched, and (3) highly enriched. Copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), arsenic (As), molybdenum (Mo), silver (Ag), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) were highly enriched trace elements. The wind fields acquired by the WRF model indicated the probable contamination sources. Source identification indicated that the highest contribution of elements to precipitation was from industry. The results showed that the combined use of enrichment factors and the WRF model can be used to identify the sources of pollutants in precipitation samples.

Measurement of atmospheric deposition of polychlorinated biphenyls and their dry deposition velocities in an urban/industrial site in Turkey.

Dry deposition fluxes and total (gas+particle) concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured between August 2004 and May 2005. Samples were collected from an urban-industrial site of Bursa, Turkey. A stainless steel pot and a high volume air sampler (HVAS) were employed to collect deposition and ambient air samples, respectively. The dry deposition fluxes of PCBs ranged from 3,600 to 56,000 pg m(-2) d(-1) while the total PCB concentrations collected simultaneously were between 35 and 348 pg m(-3). The average dry deposition flux value was in line with the previously reported values. Possible variations in PCB fluxes were likely due to PCB and total suspended particle (TSP) concentrations, and meteorological conditions. No seasonal trends were observed for the bulk deposition samples. The 3- and 4- chlorobiphenyls (CBs) were abundant homolog groups in bulk and concentration samples with ratios of 67% and 90%, respectively. Apparent bulk deposition velocities were calculated by dividing the dry deposition flux value by particle phase air concentration values of PCBs measured with HVAS. The calculated apparent dry deposition velocities ranged from 0.23 cm s(-1) to 3.09 cm s(-1) (aver +/- SD, 0.74 +/- 0.23 cm s(-1)).

Seasonal concentrations and partitioning of PAHs in a suburban site of Bursa, Turkey.

Effects of space heating on atmospheric concentrations and gas-particle partitioning of PAHs were investigated in a suburban site of Bursa, Turkey. The average concentrations of summation operator(15)-PAHs in heating season samples were approximately 10 times higher than those of non-heating season samples. The plot of log K(p) versus log P(L)(0) for all the data set gave significantly different slopes. The slope for the heating season (-0.75) samples was steeper than the one for the non-heating season (-0.64) samples. It was also observed that partitioning of PAHs for the non-heating season samples showed different characteristics depending on air parcel trajectories. Generally steeper slopes were obtained for the air parcels traveled across the Black sea and arrived to the sampling site from northern sector. On the other hand, the variations in slopes according to air mass origin were insignificant for the heating season samples. Local contributions from space heating are the reason for this observation.

Characterization of atmospheric concentrations and partitioning of PAHs in the Chicago atmosphere.

An intensive sampling program has been undertaken in the absence of precipitation at an urban site, Chicago, to characterize the atmospheric concentration and partitioning of PAHs. Two different sampling programs have been carried out with a large number of samples. Measured ambient concentrations of PAHs were classified as Land and Lake samples based on wind direction and back trajectory calculations. Differences in ambient concentrations of PAHs were observed between Land and Lake samples. The concentrations of PAHs when air originated over the Land were approximately two-four times higher than the concentrations measured when air originated over the Lake. It has been demonstrated that partitioning of PAHs shows a consistent difference between samples taken when wind came from off the land rather than off the water. This was most evident by more shallow slopes for Lake samples compared to the slopes for Land samples, when partition coefficient (K(p)) is plotted on a log-log scale vs. the subcooled liquid vapor pressure (P(L)(0)). Experimentally, determined K(p) values were compared with the results obtained using two different models, one based on absorption into aerosol organic matter and the other adsorption onto soot carbon. Experimental K(p) values generally agreed well with the soot+octanol based model predictions.

Concentrations and gas/particle partitioning of PCBs in Chicago.

Thirty seven air samples were collected in Chicago, IL from June to October 1995 and analyzed for gas and particle concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Lower molecular weight (MW) PCBs dominated the samples and on average 95% of the Sigma50PCB concentration (gas+particulate) was in the vapor phase. Sigma50PCB concentrations were classified based on prevailing winds (lake and land). The Sigma50PCB concentration varied between 0.42 and 5.21 ng/m3 (1.80+/-1.70 ng/m3) for lake and 0.53 and 8.31 ng/m3 (2.41+/-2.15 ng/m3) for land wind directions. Back trajectory analyses suggested that SW of Chicago can be an important local or regional source sector for PCBs. Partitioning between gas and particulate phases was modeled using the Junge-Pankow model. The measured particle phase concentrations for low MW PCBs were lower than those predicted by the model while the opposite was observed for high MW PCBs. Plots of gas/particle partition coefficient (log Kp) vs. subcooled liquid vapor pressure (log pL(0)) had reasonable correlations for individual samples but the slope varied among the samples. Samples that originated from over the lake had higher slopes than samples that originated from over the land.

Atmospheric PAH concentrations in fine and coarse particles.

Measurements of the urban air concentrations of PAHs associated with PM2.5-fine and PM 10-coarse particles in Chicago on the campus of IIT were achieved using a Universal Air Sampler. Short sampling time (12 hr) and high flow rates were used to measure the PAH concentrations in fine and coarse particles. Measured ambient concentrations of PAHs were classified based on wind direction and back trajectory calculations as Land and Lake samples. Differences in ambient concentrations of PAHs were observed between Land and Lake samples. Fine particle concentrations varied from 9.5 to 25.7 ng m(-3) and averaged 18.2 ng m(-3) for the Land samples, while they ranged from 4.2 to 31.5 ng m(-3) and averaged 13.4 ng m(-3) for the Lake samples. The measured PAH concentrations in coarse particles varied from 6.2 to 22.1 ng m(-3) and averaged 12.9 ng m(-3) for the Land samples, and they ranged from 2.4 to 13.0 ng m(-3) with an average value of 7.3 ng m(-3) for the Lake samples. The fine/coarse ratio of each individual PAH compound varied between 1.3 and 2.7 for the Land samples: it varied between 1.6 and 4.2 for the Lake samples. There was an increase in the fine/coarse ratio of PAH as molecular weight of the compound increases for both Land and Lake samples.