A study of post exercise hypotension in normotensive offspring of hypertensives after acute exercise.

Background & objectives: Post exercise hypotension (PEH) is a well-known entity in hypertensive and borderline hypertensive patients. Since the results are inconsistent in normotensives and there is a genetic predisposition of the individuals to hypertension, we hypothesized that PEH is expected to occur in those normotensives who are offspring of hypertensive parents. In this study, we therefore aimed to compare the magnitude of PEH after an acute bout of moderate intensity continuous exercise (MICE) in the offspring of hypertensives vs. offspring of normotensives. Methods: Sixty normotensive participants of both genders (male and female in equal proportion), aged 18-40 yr, were divided into two groups based on their family history of hypertension. The cases (Group 1, n=30) consisted of the normotensives who were offspring of hypertensive parents while the normotensives who were offspring of normotensive parents were taken as the controls (Group 2, n=30). The hypertensive patients were excluded from the study. The individuals underwent a control session (sitting at rest for 5-10 min), followed by a single acute bout of MICE based on the target heart rate (60-70% of maximum heart rate) on a treadmill at the same time of the day (in the morning). The pre- and post-exercise measurements (after 10 min post exercise) of systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) were taken in all the participants using mercury sphygmomanometer in sitting position on the left arm. The intergroup and intragroup net effects of exercise on BP were compared with P<0.05 considered significant. Results: The mean SBP was reduced by 5 mmHg than the baseline in the offspring of hypertensives (cases) as compared to the controls after exercise (P=0.01). The fall in mean DBP and MAP was insignificant across both the groups, but the magnitude of PEH measured as delta changes (BP before and after exercise) in SBP (~5 mmHg) and MAP (~4 mmHg) were significantly higher for the cases as compared to the controls (P=0.01). Interpretation & conclusions: PEH occurs in higher magnitude in normotensives who are genetically predisposed to hypertension, such as offspring of hypertensive parents, and may find regular exercise-induced PEH as an important primary preventive tool to prevent or delay the development of hypertension.

Assessment of bronchial responsiveness on exposure to isometric exercise during different phases of menstrual cycle: a pilot study.

OBJECTIVES: The present study was planned to assess the effects of gonadal steroids (estrogen and progesterone) on bronchial responsiveness, before and after handgrip exercise, during different phases of menstrual cycle. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this study, 30 healthy (25-40 years), non-athletic, adult female volunteers were studied. The various pulmonary function parameters (FVC, FEV1, PEFR, FEF 25-75%) were recorded with a spirometer under resting conditions and then within five minutes of cessation of isometric exercise. Recordings were taken during the Menstrual phase (MP), Proliferative phase (PP), and Luteal phase (LP) of menstrual cycle and were confirmed by plasma levels of estrogen and progesterone. The oral temperature was recorded during each phase of the menstrual cycle. RESULTS: Under resting conditions, the above-mentioned parameters did not reveal significant differences during the three phases. A significant fall was observed only in the Peak Expiratory Flow Rate (PEFR) during all the phases after handgrip, but there was a non-significant decline in the other parameters. CONCLUSION: By this study we conclude that the physiological changes in hormone levels during the menstrual cycle are not in themselves associated with changes in airway responsiveness before and after the handgrip test. The general fall seen in the pulmonary parameters could be due to fatigue or psychic factors.

Effect of vitamin E and selenium supplementation on oxidative stress indices and cortisol level in blood in water buffaloes during pregnancy and early postpartum period.

Pregnancy is a physiology state accompanied by high energy and oxygen demand that may lead to increased level of oxidative stress and development of metabolic and reproductive disorders in pregnant water buffaloes. In the present study, the alterations in serum cortisol and erythrocyte lipid peroxides and superoxide dismutase activities were examined in 28 pregnant water buffaloes supplemented with antioxidant nutrients, Vitamin E and selenium. Another 14 buffaloes did not receive any treatment during pregnancy to serve as negative control. Results of the present study suggested that pregnancy is associated with oxidative stress and supplementation of vitamin E and selenium may be beneficial by alleviating oxidative stress in water buffaloes.

Effect of exogenous administration of buffalo follicular fluid on follicular development, estrus response and luteal function in anoestrous goats (Capra hircus).

The effect of buffalo follicular fluid (buFF) on follicular development, estrus response and luteal function was investigated in anoestrous does. Treatment with buFF (18 ml/doe) had no significant effect on the number of antral follicles of all class categories during the period of administration. However, after cessation of buFF treatment, the number of total antral follicles increased significantly with time (P<0.003) as well as due to the treatment x time interaction (P<0.02), without any influence on follicle size. Injection of buFF also caused a marked increase (P<0.049) with time in the number of medium-sized follicles at cessation. Approximately 60 and 20% of buFF-treated anoestrous does showed behavioural and silent estrus, respectively, compared to none in the control. The mean interval between cessation of buFF treatment to onset of oestrus and oestrus duration was 67.0+/-18.5 and 17.0+/-3.6h, respectively. Corpus lutea size varied between 4.6 and 5.8 mm with an average diameter of 5.2+/-0.3mm. Only 33.3% of does showed serum progesterone levels above 1 ng/ml, while the remainder (66.7%) had below 0.5 ng/ml. Our results indicate that exogenous administration of buFF causes enhanced follicular activity following cessation of treatment, which results in behavioural oestrus and corpus luteum (CL) development in anoestrous does. CL development and its function is, however, inadequate in buFF-treated anoestrous does.

Effects of Nandrolone and TGF-beta1 in growing rabbits with osteopenia induced by over-supplementation of calcium and vitamin D3.

The study was undertaken to find out the effects of over supplementation of dietary calcium and vitamin D3 on the mineralization of growing skeleton, taking rabbit as an animal model; further to study the effects of Nandrolone deconoate and TGF-beta1 on the mineralization of osteopenic bones. Twenty four New Zealand White rabbits of either sex, 60 day old, were randomly divided in 4 equal groups, A, B, C and D. The animals of groups B, C and D were administered with oral supplementation of calcium (2000 mg/kg of standard rabbit feed) and vit-D3 (1000 IU/kg of standard feed) for 60 days. The animals of group A were given standard ration without any supplementation. After 60 days, the Ca-vit.D3 supplementation was discontinued; and the animals of group C were administered with TGF-beta1 (10 ng, i.m.) once in every three days and animals of group D were given Nandrolone deconoate (10 mg, i.m.) once every week for 30 days, whereas in animals of group B, no treatment was given. All the animals were evaluated based on different observations like body weight, radiographic observations, circulating biochemical and hormone profile (plasma Ca, IP, AP, OC and iPTH) every 15 days up to 60 days after initiation of treatment. The results indicated that the body weight of rabbits in different groups increased gradually and steadily at different intervals till the end of observation period, however, the increase was non-significantly more in group D. The CI in group A increased gradually at different intervals; whereas in groups B, C and D, there was no appreciable increase in the CI during the period of Ca-vit.D3 supplementation, suggesting development of osteopenia. Treatment with TGF-beta1 did not increase the CI significantly, whereas Nandrolone treatment resulted in significant increase in the CI on days 45 and 60. The plasma Ca levels showed slight but gradual increase from day 0 to 60 in almost all groups. Subsequently also, there was no marked change at different intervals in groups A and B; however, significant reduction in plasma Ca was noticed in group C on 15(th) day and in group D on 60(th) day after initiation of treatment. Plasma IP levels in groups B and C showed a decreasing trend up to day 60. After discontinuation of Ca-vit.D3 supplementation, in group B, it further decreased to remain significantly lower on 15(th) day, and in groups C and D, it increased significantly on 60(th) post-treatment day. There was no significant change in the AP activity during the entire period of study in group A; whereas significant reduction in AP activity was measured on 30(th) and 60(th) days of treatment in groups B and C, and on 15(th) day of treatment in group D. Plasma iPTH values did not show any significant change at any interval during the first 60 days in all groups. On 30(th) and 60(th) days of treatment, the mean iPTH level remained significantly lesser in group B. In all groups treated with over supplementation of Ca and vit.D3, there was a non-significant increase in the plasma OC levels up to day 60; however, there was no significant difference between the groups. It can be concluded that additional supplementation of Ca and vit.D3 results in osteopenia in growing rabbits. Administration of Nandrolone helps to increase the mineral density in osteopenic bones, whereas TGF-beta1 does not seem to have positive effect on the skeletal mineralization.

Effect of exogenous insulin administration on ovarian function, embryo/fetal development during pregnancy in goats.

The effect of insulin was investigated on ovarian follicle population, ovulation rate, hormonal profiles and embryo/fetal development during pregnancy using transrectal ultrasonography in goats. Twelve goats synchronized in estrus were selected for the experiment. They were divided into two groups, viz. (untreated control, n=6) and (insulin treated, n=6). In treated group long acting bovine insulin was administered @ 0.2IU/kg body weight subcutaneously for three consecutive days, i.e. days 7-9 of estrous cycle. Thereafter, weekly single injection of insulin was continued for rest of the experiment. However, in control group only normal saline was injected as placebo. Breeding was allowed by natural service in both the groups. The does were subjected to B-mode transrectal ultrasound scanning of ovary and uterus weekly up to 120 and 98 days of gestation, respectively. Blood samples were collected weekly up to 135 days of gestation for the estimation of estradiol 17beta and progesterone (P4). The result revealed no difference in mean number of total follicles between the control and insulin treated groups. The diameter of medium follicle did not differ where as diameter of large follicle was comparatively higher in treated than control goats. The average number of corpus luteum (CL) was higher in insulin treated group as compared to control (1.66 vs. 1.16). However, the number as well as mean diameter of CL did not differ significantly between treated and control group. Serum concentrations of estradiol 17beta and progesterone were significantly (P<0.01) higher in treated than control goats. Embryonic vesicle was detected by day 21 in both the groups, however, its diameter did not differ significantly (0.73 and 0.72cm) between the groups. The twinning percentage was higher (50 vs. 16%) in insulin treated than the control goats. Placentome diameter was also higher (P>0.05) in treated animals. The results demonstrated beneficial effect of exogenous administration of insulin on ovarian function and twinning percentage in goats.

Molecular characterization of follicle stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) gene in the Indian river buffalo (Bubalus bubalis).

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) plays a central role in regulation of ovarian function in mammals. The actions of follicle stimulating hormone are mediated through receptors present on the granulosa cells of the ovary. In the present study we have cloned and characterized the FSHR gene of buffalo. Sequence analysis indicated that the buffalo FSHR cDNA sequence comprised of an open reading frame of 2085bp encoding a 695 amino acid protein. Its nucleotide sequence showed more than 80% similarity to the homologous genes of mammalian species. At amino acid level buffalo FSHR exhibited a high percentage (84-96.7%) of identity with the corresponding mammalian homologs. This is the first isolation and characterization of FSHR cDNA from buffalo ovary.

Effect of insulin administration on ovarian function and estrus induction in acyclic goats.

The present experiment was conducted to study the effect of insulin on follicular development, ovarian steroid profiles and estrus induction in 14 non-descript acyclic goats. Experimental animals were randomly divided into two groups, i.e. group A (control, n=7) and group B (insulin-treated, n=7). The animals of treatment group were injected with long acting bovine insulin subcutaneously at 0.2IU/kg body weight once daily for five consecutive days. However animals of control group were injected with normal saline only as a placebo. Animals were subjected to detection of estrus twice daily (morning and evening) using an apronized buck and visual observation of estrus signs. Simultaneously animals of both groups were subjected to B-mode transrectal ovarian ultrasonsography for follicular development and blood collection on days 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24 and 28 for the estimation of serum estradiol-17beta, progesterone and nitric oxide (NO) profiles, respectively. The results revealed significantly greater total number of follicles in insulin-treated goats as compared to control. The diameter of corpus luteum (CL) in insulin-administered goat was ranging between 5.14 and 6.14mm. Significantly higher concentrations of estradiol-17beta on days 4 and 8 and progesterone on days 12, 16, 20 and 24 were observed in insulin-treated goats as compared to control. Significantly higher concentration of NO was observed in insulin-treated group as compared to control. In the treatment group estrus was recorded in 5/7 goats (71%), with estrus duration of 19+/-2.6h at a mean interval of 189+/-17.7h from the initiation of treatment. Ovulation occurred in 4/5 (80%) of responding animals, as confirmed by detecting CL ultrasonographically. However in control none of the animal displayed signs of estrus during the observation period. The results indicate favorable effect of insulin on ovarian function.

Changes in plasma hormones profile and liver function in cows naturally exposed to lead and cadmium around different industrial areas.

The present study was carried out to assess the endocrine status and liver function in adult cows reared in polluted environment around different industrial units in India. The effect on endocrine system was examined by determination of plasma level of thyroid hormones, thyroxin (T4) (n=269) and triidothyronin (T3) (n=269), stress hormone cortisol (n=266), and reproductive hormones such as estradiol (n=84) and progesterone (n=84) in cows (>3 years) reared around different polluted industrial and non-polluted areas. The respective blood lead and cadmium concentration was also determined in all the cows. The mean plasma levels of both T3 and T4 were significantly (P<0.05) higher around lead zinc smelter (2.43+/-0.26 and 41.1+/-2.9nmol/L) and closed lead cum operational zinc smelter (1.81+/-0.16 and 42.4+/-6.2nmol/L), where the mean blood lead level (0.86+/-0.06 and 0.51+/-0.09mug/ml) was also significantly higher than that of cows (0.07+/-0.01mug/ml) from unpolluted areas. Regression analysis of data from 269 cows revealed a significant (P<0.01) positive correlation between the blood lead and plasma T3 (r=0.287) and T4 (r=0.173). The correlation between thyroidal hormones and the blood cadmium concentration (r=-0.079 and -0.48; P>0.05) was not significant. Plasma cortisol level had also a non-significant (P>0.05) correlation (r=-0.092) with blood lead level.However, the mean cortisol level (4.02+/-1.96nmol/L) of cows in phosphate rock mining areas was significantly (P<0.05) higher than that of controls (1.98+/-0.70nmol/L). The mean plasma estradiol level was significantly (P<0.05) higher in cows around closed lead cum operational zinc smelter (47.1+/-19.5pg/ml) than that of the control animals (21.8+/-3.9pg/ml) and in rest of the areas, the difference did not reach the statistical significance (P>0.05). The serum biochemical analysis in 36 cows around lead-zinc smelter with the highest mean blood lead level (0.86+/-0.06mug/ml) amongst all the industrial/urban areas surveyed, and in 15 animals from non-polluted areas revealed a significant positive correlation between blood lead and serum ALT (alanine transaminase) (r=0.688, P<0.01) and AST (aspartate transaminase) (r=0.390, P<0.01) and a negative correlation with serum total lipids (r=-0.337, P<0.05), total protein (r=-0.449, P<0.01) and albumin(r=-0.662, P<0.01). It is concluded from the study that the natural exposure to lead in polluted environments disturbs the endocrine profile and the higher blood lead level alters serum biochemical parameters indicative of liver functions.

Effect of Fasciola gigantica infection on adrenal and thyroid glands of riverine buffaloes.

Effect of Fasciola gigantica infection on adrenal and thyroid glands was investigated using eight male, yearling Murrah buffaloes. The animals were randomly assigned to two groups of four buffaloes each (Group-A, infected; Group-B, non-infected control). Animals of Group-A were orally infected with 1000 F. gigantica viable metacercariae, keeping other four animals of Group-B as uninfected control. In the infected buffaloes, the clinical signs began appearing from 7th week postinfection (p.i.) and eggs were detected in the faeces between day 93 and 99 (95.5+/-1.25) postinfection (p.i.). The serum cortisol level, revealed a significant (P<0.05) rise during initial stage of the infection, followed by a continuous fall from 12th week onward. Peak cortisol level on 10th week (13.30+/-2.57ngml(-1)) was associated with eosinophilia (11.0+/-0.95%). However, non-infected controls maintained almost uniform cortisol levels (3.97+/-0.15-5.88+/-0.09ngml(-1)) throughout the period of the study. The pathological changes of adrenal glands were correlated with physiological dysfunction of the glands. The levels of T(3) and T(4) were significantly (P<0.05-0.01) low from 14th week onward and were synchronous with in situ migration, growth and development of F. gigantica. Significant reduction in the thyroid hormones was further supported by histopathological evidence of lymphocytic thyroiditis confirming hypothyroidism. A decrease in Hb, PCV, total erythrocyte counts and appearance of reticulocytes in the blood of the infected buffaloes suggested regenerative anemia, which could partly be due to hypothyroidism.

Effect of a Homeopathic complex on oestrus induction and hormonal profile in anoestrus cows.

This study was undertaken to evaluate the efficacy of a homeopathic complex in the management of true anoestrus in crossbred cows. Six anoestrus cows were treated with a homeopathic complex (Calcarea phosphorica 30c, Aletris farinosa 30c, Pulsatilla 30c, Aurum muriaticum natronatum 30c, Sepia 30c and Phosphorus 30c in equal proportion, 15 pills twice daily orally for 10 days). Six animals acted as control without any treatment. Treatment was 100% effective in inducing oestrus in anoestrus cows with mean interval of 27.5+/-5.3 days. All animals conceived and overall conception rate was 54.5% with 1.83 services per conception. In the homeopathic complex treated group, increased serum oestradiol concentration (20.88+/-5.60 to 27.80+/-7.28 pg/ml) was observed compared to the pretreatment (11.71+/-2.06 pg/ml) and control value (10.43+/-1.77 to 13.94+/-3.14 pg/ml). The homeopathic complex medicine may be effective and economical in the treatment of true anoestrus condition in cows.

Influence of hypothyroid state on 45Ca(2+) influx and sensitivity of rat uterus to nifedipine and diltiazem.

The influence of methimazole-induced hypothyroidism on spontaneous rhythmic contractions and Ca2+ channel function of rat uterus was examined. Hypothyroidism significantly reduced the amplitude and frequency of spontaneous rhythmic contractions. Nifedipine (10(-12)-10(-6) M) and diltiazem (10(-9)-10(-4) M) caused concentration-related inhibition of the myogenic responses of the oestrogenised rat uterus obtained from both eu- and hypothyroid rats. However, nifedipine was less potent (IC(50); 5.4 x 10(-9) M; n=6) in hypothyroid rat uterus as compared to euthyroid controls (IC(50): 8.13 x 10(-12) M; n=9) to inhibit the rhythmic contractions. Similarly, diltiazem was less potent (IC(50): 4.57 x 10(-6) M; n=9) to inhibit the uterine spontaneous contractions in hypothyroid than in euthyroid rat uterus (IC(50): 6.4 x 10(-8) M; n=6). A similar decrease in the sensitivity to nifedipine and diltiazem for reversal of K+ (100 mM)-induced tonic contraction was observed in uterus obtained from hypothyroid rats compared to the controls. Both nifedipine and diltiazem were less potent for causing concentration-related inhibition of K+-stimulated 45Ca2+ influx in uterine strips taken from the hypothyroid rats. Thus, the IC(50) values of nifedipine (1.83 x 10(-8) M; n=12) and diltiazem (1.8 x 10(-6) M; n=9) were significantly greater in tissues obtained from hypothyroid rats compared to the controls (IC(50) of nifedipine, 1.15 x 10(-11) M; n=12, diltiazem, 8.1 x 10(-8) M; n=8). Nifedipine-sensitive influx of 45Ca2+ - stimulated either by K+ (100 mM) or Bay k8644 (1,4-dihydro-2,6-dimethyl-5-nitro-4-[2'-(trifluromethyl)phenyl]-3-pyridine carboxylic acid methyl ester) (10(-8) M) was significantly less in uterine strips from hypothyroid rats compared to the controls. The results of the present study suggest that the inhibition of uterine rhythmic contractions may be attributable to a reduction in rat myometrial Ca2+ channel function in the hypothyroid state.

Effect of iodine level in mustard (Brassica juncea) cake-based concentrate supplement on nutrient utilisation and serum thyroid hormones of goats.

To assess the influence of dietary iodine (I) supplementation on nutritional performance and serum thyroid hormones of goats, 12 adult Barbari goats (average weight 18.8kg) were assigned randomly to three dietary treatments. The goats were fed a mustard (Brassica juncea) cake containing concentrate supplement along with either 0mg (control, I(0)), 0.050mg (I(50)), or 0.075mg (I(75)) I per animal per day for 180 days. Oat hay was given ad libitum as basal roughage. There was no difference in intake and digestibility of various nutrients or N retention among the three groups in a metabolism trial after 90 days of experimental feeding. A second metabolism trial conducted at 165 days post-feeding revealed that daily intake of DM, DCP and ME were 39.9, 41.1 and 44.8g, 2.64, 3.01 and 2.97g, and 366, 414 and 415kJ per unit metabolic body size, respectively, for the I(0), I(50) and I(75) groups. Retention of N by goats was 1.75, 2.58 and 2.56g per day (P>0.05) for the three groups, but one of the control animal was in negative balance. Mean live weight of I(75) animals was higher (P<0.05) at the end of the experimental feeding period with net live weight gains of 2.6, 4.8 and 5.4kg for the three groups. Mean serum concentration of triiodothyronine was 1.20, 1.23 and 1.65ngml(-1), being significantly higher in I(75) group. Mean level of thyroxine was 18.3, 24.9 and 27.4ngml(-1), significantly (P<0.05) higher in both I-supplemented groups. It is concluded that supplementing I at the tested levels positively influenced the live weight gain of goats with no significant impact on the utilisation of nutrients. Serum thyroid hormones also increased in response to I supplementation.

Role of cardiovascular reactivity to mental stress in predicting future hypertension.

Hypertension (HT) has been known since times immemorial to be one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality. It contributes to atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, increasing its risk 2-3 times and is also associated with dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, glucose intolerance and obesity (1). The age of onset of hypertension is now earlier than before, making it essential that early detection of people who could be future hypertensives is done. Therefore, cardiovascular reactivity to stress in predicting future hypertension becomes important. In this fast paced age most people are exposed to mental stress which is the most common and prevalent form of stress. Increase in blood pressure (BP) in response to emotional arousal is well known, but support for this hypothesis of reactivity in predicting future hypertension is limited. We are attempting here to put forth a review of the various endeavours done so far to support this hypothesis.

Evaluation of the activity of receptor-operated Ca2+ channels in rat portal vein in induced hyperthyroidism.

The activity of receptor-operated Ca2+ channels (ROCCs) was studied in rat portal vein in L-thyroxine-induced experimental hyperthyroidism. The following parameters were evaluated: 1. NE-stimulated 45Ca influx. 2. CaCl2-induced contractile responses in Ca2+ free NE-stimulated tissues to calculate EC50 value of CaCl2. The NE (10(-6)mol) stimulated 45Ca influx and the mean EC50 value of CaCl2 did not differ significantly in portal veins isolated from hyperthyroid rats as compared to those of euthyroid control rats. The study revealed no significant change in the functional status of ROCCs in experimental hyperthyroidism.

Changes in serum triiodothyronine, thyroxine, estradiol-17 beta, progesterone levels and egg production in hypocholesterolemia induced Japanese quails Coturnix coturnix japanica.

Mature healthy female Japanese quails injected (i.p.) with gemfibrozil at two dose levels for 1,2,3 and 4 weeks induced hypocholesterolemia as observed by the serum cholesterol concentration which was more severe with the higher dose. Liver and ovarian cholesterol contents decreased in 3rd and 4th week of the treatment. Significant (P > 0.05) increase in serum triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) level were observed between 3rd and 4th week while serum estradiol-17 beta and progesterone levels declined continuously from Ist week till the termination of the treatment. The quantity and quality of the eggs produced by the treated quails were inferior. These results indicate that induction of hypocholesterolemia impaired the reproductive efficiency of quails.

Centrally mediated alpha & beta adrenoceptors controlling blood pressure in rabbits.

The effect of intracerebroventricular (icv) injection of noradrenaline (NA) on the blood pressure was studied in anaesthetised rabbits. Adrenoceptor blockers were used to study the specific adrenoceptor mediating the response. The results indicated a hypotensive response to icv injection of NA. This hypotensive response to NA was blocked by alpha-2 (yohimbine) and beta-1 (metoprolol) but not by alpha-1 (prazosin) and beta-2 (butoxamine) adrenoceptor blockers.

A study of action of norepinephrine on hypothalamic feeding centres.

Effects of intrahypothalamic and intraventricular microinjections of norepinephrine (NE) were studied in fasted albino rats. Applications of NE into ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), medial part of lateral hypothalamus (LH) and lateral ventricle (LV) caused marked but short lasting decrease in food intake, whereas lateral part of LH was insensitive to NE administration. Decrease in water intake seemed secondary to decrease in food intake. Decrease in food intake could not be attributed to the alteration of body temperature. This study explains the mechanism of anorexigenic action of amphetamine and the mechanism of hyperphagia following destruction of the ventral noradrenergic bundle.