ABSTRACT
PURPOSE: Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) mediate nonimage-forming visual functions such as pupillary constriction and circadian photoentrainment. Optimizing daytime nonimage-forming photostimulation has health benefits. We aimed to enhance ipRGC excitation using flickering instead of steady light. METHODS: Human subjects were tested with a three-dimensional matrix of flickering 463-nm stimuli: three photon counts (13.7, 14.7 and 15.7 log photons cm(-2)), three duty cycles (12%, 47%, and 93%) and seven flicker frequencies (0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 7 Hz). Steady-state pupil constrictions were measured. RESULTS: Among stimuli containing 13.7 log photons cm-2, the one flickering at 2 Hz with a 12% duty cycle evoked the greatest pupil constriction of 48% ± 4%, 71% greater than that evoked by an equal-intensity (12.3 log photons cm(-2) s(-1)) continuous light. This frequency and duty cycle were also best for 14.7 log photons cm-2 stimuli, inducing a 58% ± 4% constriction which was 38% more than that caused by an equal-intensity (13.3 log photons cm(-2) s(-1)) constant light. For 15.7 log photons cm-2 stimuli, the 1-Hz, 47% duty cycle flicker was optimal although it evoked the same constriction as the best 14.7 log photons cm(-2) flicker. CONCLUSIONS: Pupillary constriction depends on flicker frequency and duty cycle besides intensity. Among the stimuli tested, the one with the lowest photon count inducing a maximal response is 13.3 log photons cm(-2) s(-1) flickering at 2 Hz with 12% duty cycle. Our data could guide the design of healthier architectural lighting and better phototherapy devices for treating seasonal affective disorder and jet lag.
Subject(s)
Dark Adaptation/physiology , Light , Photic Stimulation/methods , Pupil/physiology , Retinal Ganglion Cells/metabolism , Rod Opsins/radiation effects , Vision, Ocular/physiology , Adult , Animals , Electrophysiological Phenomena , Female , Humans , Male , Mice , Pupil/radiation effects , Retinal Ganglion Cells/cytology , Retinal Ganglion Cells/radiation effects , Rod Opsins/metabolism , Young AdultABSTRACT
The retina drives various non-image-forming photoresponses, including circadian photoentrainment and pupil constriction. Previous investigators showed that in humans, photic suppression of the clock-controlled hormone melatonin is most sensitive to 460-nm blue light, with a threshold of ~12 log photons cm(-2) s(-1). This threshold is surprising because non-image-forming vision is mediated by intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, which receive rod-driven synaptic input and can respond to light levels as low as ~7 log photons cm(-2) s(-1). Using a protocol that enhances data precision, we have found the threshold for human melatonin suppression to be ~10 log photons cm(-2) s(-1) at 460 nm. This finding has far-reaching implications since there is mounting evidence that nocturnal activation of the circadian system can be harmful.
