Factorial validity and measurement invariance of the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ).

The Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) is the gold standard measure for burnout in athletes. However, previous assessments of factorial validity have: (a) tested overly restrictive measurement models; (b) provided mixed support for factorial validity; and (c) not been applied to assess measurement invariance across gender, sport type, or age. To address these issues, we used ABQ data provided by 914 athletes (Mage = 21.75 years, SD = 8.79) and examined factorial validity using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory structural equation modelling (ESEM) techniques. We also examined measurement invariance of the ABQ data across reported gender (female, male), sport type (individual, team), and age (≤18 years, >18 years) groups. The analyses revealed that an ESEM model provided superior fit over the corresponding CFA model. In terms of measurement invariance, support was provided for the equivalence of the ABQ across each group. This means that researchers using the ABQ can collect data across these groups and examine potential differences with confidence that the ABQ is approximately invariant. In all, we provide evidence that the majority of ABQ items are key target construct indicators and the burnout construct (as measured by the ABQ) has the same structure and meaning to different athlete groups.

Don't look back in anger: A cross-sectional and dyadic examination of the Dark Triad, anger, and aggression in athletes.

OBJECTIVES: The Dark Triad (psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism) has been linked to anti-social behaviour in sport, and while anti-social behaviour often involves aggression and violence, no research to date has examined the relationship between the Dark Triad and anger and aggression in athletes. The current two-sample study sought to address this gap. DESIGN: Multi-sample cross-sectional design. METHOD: Sample 1 included 224 athletes (MAGE = 23.85) and Sample 2 included 98 coach-athlete dyads (196 total; athlete MAGE = 18.15, coaches MAGE = 34.84). In both samples, facets of the Dark Triad were related to anger and aggression. RESULTS: In Sample 1, regression analyses indicated that psychopathy positively predicted both anger and aggression and Machiavellianism positively predicted aggression. In Sample 2, actor-partner interdependence models indicated a combination of dyadic relationships (i.e., both actor [coach and athlete personality predicted their own anger and aggression] and partner effects [coach and athlete personality predicted the other's anger and aggression]). In this regard, actor effects were found between psychopathy and both anger and aggression and narcissism and aggression. Coach to athlete partner effects were found for narcissism and anger and Machiavellianism and aggression. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the findings provide evidence for personal and interpersonal relationships between the Dark Triad and anger and aggression and highlight the potential for the darker side of both athlete and coach personality to influence athlete emotions.

Psychometric properties of the Cystic Fibrosis Eating Attitudes and Behaviours scale (CFEAB) in an adult population.

OBJECTIVES: Individuals with Cystic Fibrosis (CF) may be at an increased risk of developing a range of eating difficulties. Scales designed to measure disordered eating in the general population do not cover CF-specific behaviours resulting in a knowledge gap. The CFEAB was developed as a CF-specific measure assessing eating behaviours and attitudes however little evidence exists regarding its psychometric quality. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to provide a robust assessment of its internal consistency, structural validity, and criterion validity. METHODS: One-hundred and thirty-two people with CF completed self-report scales pertaining to mental health, eating disorders, and the Cystic Fibrosis Eating Attitudes and Behaviours (CFEAB). RESULTS: Results of exploratory structural equation modelling indicated that a three-factor structure produced good fit with the 24-item CFEAB but a purified 12-item CFEAB displayed superior fit and internal consistency. Also, the 12-item scale predicted significant amounts of variance for anxiety, depression, and eating disorders showing enhanced relevance for clinical use. Conclusions These findings add emphasis to the importance of the validation and development of CF-specific measures and the possible inclusion at clinics to help improve CF patient care.

Explaining individual differences in cognitive performance: The role of anxiety, social support and living arrangements during COVID-19.

The present study investigated the relationship between anxiety, social support, living arrangements and cognitive performance of university students during the global pandemic. Two hundred and fifteen students participated by completing online questionnaires. Separate moderated multiple regression models were used to test whether social support (Family, Friends, Significant Other subscales of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support) moderated the relationship between anxiety (Anxiety subscale of Depression, Anxiety Stress Scale), living arrangements (Living Alone vs Living with Friends and Family) and cognitive performance (Cognitive Failures Questionnaire), after controlling for comorbid depression. The results for each level of perceived social support suggested that anxiety was negatively associated with cognitive performance. Our most significant finding was that for students living alone, social support from a significant other offered a protective factor, whereby buffering the anxiety related cognitive deficits prevalent in those who reported lower social support. These data have important practical implications for supporting the social-emotional and academic needs of university students during the global pandemic.

Emotional Intelligence Training: Influence of a Brief Slow-Paced Breathing Exercise on Psychophysiological Variables Linked to Emotion Regulation.

Designing emotional intelligence training programs requires first testing the effectiveness of techniques targeting its main dimensions. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a brief slow-paced breathing (SPB) exercise on psychophysiological variables linked to emotion regulation, namely cardiac vagal activity (CVA), as well as perceived stress intensity, emotional arousal, and emotional valence. A total of 61 participants completed a 5-min SPB exercise and a control condition of a 5-min rest measurement. CVA was indexed with the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD). Participants were also asked to rate their perceived stress intensity, emotional arousal, and emotional valence. Results showed that CVA was higher during SPB in comparison to the control condition. Contrary to our hypothesis, perceived stress intensity and emotional arousal increased after SPB, and perceived emotional valence was less positive after SPB. This could be explained by experiencing dyspnea (i.e., breathing discomfort), and the need to get acclimatized to SPB. Consequently, we may conclude that although physiological benefits of SPB on CVA are immediate, training may be required in order to perceive psychological benefits.

Executive Function and Mood: The Moderating Role of Athletic Expertise.

Executive function (EF) is known to be influenced by mood, but whether this relationship holds for populations of athletes and whether athletic expertise moderates it is uncertain. Thus, in the current study, we examined relationships between positive and negative affect (i.e., mood), the lower-order cortical aspects of executive function (i.e., inhibition, shifting and updating), and athletic expertise. A sample of 256 participants (55.08% male; Mage = 20.69) completed a self-report mood measure and computerized tests of EF. Individuals with more athletic expertise reported higher positive affect and better EF scores, whereas those with less athletic expertise reported higher negative affect. Structural equation modelling indicated that positive affect was related to better inhibition, shifting, and updating performance but was not related to performance errors. Similarly, negative affect was related to better EF, except for the inhibition latency score. Athletic expertise moderated all significant associations between mood and EF and higher expertise facilitated higher EF performance. Together, athletic expertise is an important individual differences factor in understanding the influence of mood on EF performance.

Inhibitory Control Across Athletic Expertise and Its Relationship With Sport Performance.

Inhibitory control may be vital in elite sport. The authors examined the link between athletic expertise, inhibitory control, and sport performance in a two-part quasi experiment. Inhibitory control was indexed using the Stop-Signal Task, athlete expertise was categorized on literary recommendations, and sport performance was assessed using athlete and coach ratings. Study 1 examined cross-sectional and longitudinal patterns of inhibitory control across athletic expertise. Study 2 investigated whether the inhibitory control-sport performance relationship was moderated by expertise. Study 1 showed that expertise was linked to greater inhibitory control cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Study 2 revealed that expertise was related to superior performance on the Stop-Signal Task and athlete and coach performance ratings, and this relationship was moderated by athletic expertise. Inhibitory control relates to sport performance, increases with greater athlete expertise, and develops longitudinally. Long-term participation in sport may bring about changes in inhibitory control, which may lead to improved sport performance.

The winner takes it all: The mediating role of competitive orientations in the Dark Triad and sport task performance relationship.

The Dark Triad traits (Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy) are prevalent in athletes. However, currently, we do not know whether the Dark Triad confers any competitive advantages in sport. To address this issue, the present study had two aims. First, to examine whether the Dark Triad predicted task performance in a basketball free throw task. Second, to examine whether competitive orientations explained (i.e. mediated) this relationship. A sample of 189 athletes (mean age = 19.11 years) completed measures of the Dark Triad, competitive orientations, and task performance (basketball free throw task). Regression analyses indicated that the Dark Triad predicted better task performance. In addition, mediation analyses indicated that the Dark Triad-performance relationship was explained by both hypercompetitive and self-developmental competitive orientations. The present study provides the first evidence that the Dark Triad may lead to better task performance in sport, and that this effect may be driven by athletes' competitive orientations.

Attention, working-memory control, working-memory capacity, and sport performance: The moderating role of athletic expertise.

The aim of this research was to detangle the association between attention, working-memory (focusing on both control and capacity functions), and sport performance across athletic expertise. Specifically, the mediating effect of working-memory-control and working-memory-capacity on the attention and performance relationship will be investigated, and whether this effect differs across athlete expertise. A sample of 359 athletes (Mage = 18.91 ± SD = 1.01; 54.87% male) with a range of athletic expertise (novice n = 99, amateur n = 92, elite n = 87, and super-elite n = 81) completed a battery of neurocognitive tasks assessing attention, working-memory-control, working-memory-capacity, and a cognitively engaging motor task (e.g. basketball free-throw task). Athletes with more expertise performed better on tasks of attention, working-memory-control and working-memory-capacity. Results of structural equation modelling indicated a positive association between the cognitive measures and sport performance. Specifically, working-memory-control and working-memory-capacity mediated the attention and sport performance relationship. Additionally, invariance testing indicated larger effects for those with more athletic expertise. These findings provide a better understanding of how attention and the control and capacity functions of working-memory interact to predict performance. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.

Reflection-impulsivity in athletes: A cross-sectional and longitudinal investigation.

Reflection-impulsivity is a dimension of cognitive or decision-making style. We conducted two quasi-experimental studies to examine reflection-impulsivity in athletes using an information sampling task. In Study 1 (n = 108; Mage = 22.7 ± SDage = 1.42; 50% female), we used a cross-sectional design to compare performance across athletic expertise (super-elite, elite, amateur, novice or non-athlete) and sport type (external-paced or self-paced). In Study 2 (Time 1 n = 106; Mage = 21.32 ± SDage = 5.77; 53% female and Time 2 n = 64; Mage = 21.19 ± SDage = 5.12; 44% female), we examined changes in reflection-impulsivity across a 16-week playing season. Study 1 showed more accurate and more efficient performance as athletic expertise increased. Study 2 revealed better effectiveness and efficiency following sport participation, a 16-week playing season, most notably in elite-level performers. No sport-type differences were noted. Taken together, the studies demonstrate an association between reflection-impulsivity and athletic expertise, while also providing evidence that competitive sports participation leads to efficient decisions based on reflection, without sacrificing accuracy, which is often a consequence of impulsive decision-making.

The effect of trait emotional intelligence on working memory across athletic expertise.

Research attests to the important contributions of emotional, athletic, and cognitive expertise for sport performance. However, little is known regarding the interplay between trait emotional intelligence, athletic expertise, and working memory. The aim of this research was to examine the interplay between working memory (emotional, capacity and ability), trait emotional intelligence and athletic expertise. In total, 437 participants aged between 18 and 27 years with a range of athletic expertise (i.e., non-athlete n = 96, novice n = 92, amateur n = 85, elite n = 83, and super-elite n = 81) completed the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Short Form, an Emotion Recognition Task (i.e., working memory-emotional), a Spatial Span Task (i.e., working memory-capacity), and a Spatial Working Memory Test (i.e., working memory-ability). Structural equation modelling indicated a significant positive relationship between trait emotional intelligence and all three components of working memory (i.e., emotional, capacity and ability). Also, this differed over athletic expertise whereby those with more expertise reported larger effects than those with less expertise. These findings suggest that trait emotional intelligence is important for working memory in athletes. Moreover, the link between cognitive and affective processes are increasingly relevant as athletes develop expertise levels.

Mental Health Measurement in a Post Covid-19 World: Psychometric Properties and Invariance of the DASS-21 in Athletes and Non-athletes.

Psychological science faces a call to action researching the implications of the corona virus disease 2019 (Covid-19) pandemic. Rapid reviews have reported that maintaining rigorous research standards is a priority for the field, such as ensuring reliable and valid measurement, when investigating people's experience of Covid-19 (O'Connor et al., 2020). However, no research to date has validated a measure mental health symptomology for an athlete population. The current research addresses this gap by examining the internal consistency, factor structure, invariance, and convergent validity of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21; Lovibond and Lovibond, 1995) in two athlete samples. Participants completed the DASS-21 and sport-specific measures of mental health such as the Profile of Mood States - Depression subscale (POMS-D), Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2), Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ), and Athlete Psychological Strain Questionnaire (APSQ). In sample one (n = 894), results of exploratory structural equation modeling indicated that a three-factor model provided good fit to the data, but a bifactor model provided better fit. Factor loadings indicated minimal misspecification and higher loadings on the general-factor. Invariance testing suggested equivalence across gender, athletic expertise, sport type, and injury status. Further, latent mean differences analyses indicated that females and injured athletes scored higher than male and non-injured athletes on all DASS-21 factors reporting higher mental health symptomology, those with more expertise scored higher on the general-factor and depression and those with less expertise scored higher on anxiety and stress, and no differences between team and individual athletes. In sample two (n = 589), the bifactor structure was replicated. Results largely supported the scales convergent validity with depression predicting POMS-D scores, whereas all three subscales predicted the SAS-2, ABQ, and APSQ scores. Internal consistency was acceptable in both samples. The current work provides initial support for use of the DASS-21 as an operationalisation of mental health symptomology in athletes. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.