RXP 407, a selective inhibitor of the N-domain of angiotensin I-converting enzyme, blocks in vivo the degradation of hemoregulatory peptide acetyl-Ser-Asp-Lys-Pro with no effect on angiotensin I hydrolysis.

The phosphinic peptide RXP 407 has recently been identified as the first potent selective inhibitor of the N-active site (domain) of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in vitro. The aim of this study was to probe the in vivo efficacy of this new ACE inhibitor and to assess its effect on the metabolism of AcSDKP and angiotensin I. In mice infused with increasing doses of RXP 407 (0.1--30 mg/kg/30 min), plasma concentrations of AcSDKP, a physiological substrate of the N-domain, increased significantly and dose dependently toward a plateau 4 to 6 times the basal levels. RXP 407 significantly and dose dependently inhibited ex vivo plasma ACE N-domain activity, whereas it had no inhibitory activity toward the ACE C-domain. RXP 407 (10 mg/kg) did not inhibit the pressor response to an i.v. angiotensin I bolus injection in mice. In contrast, lisinopril infusion (5 and 10 mg/kg/30 min) affected the metabolism of both AcSDKP and angiotensin I. Thus, RXP 407 is the first ACE inhibitor that might be used to control selectively AcSDKP metabolism with no effect on blood pressure regulation.

Potency and selectivity of RXP407 on human, rat, and mouse angiotensin-converting enzyme.

By screening phosphinic peptide libraries, we recently reported the discovery of RXP407 (Ac-Asp-PheY(PO2-CH2)LAla-Ala-NH2), a potent N-domain-selective inhibitor of recombinant human angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). Preliminary studies to evaluate the in vivo activity of RXP407 in rat led us to suspect possible differences in the binding property of RXP407 between human and rat ACE. The aim of the present study was thus to determine the potency of RXP407 toward rat and mouse ACEs, as compared to non-recombinant human ACE, and to assess the efficacy of this inhibitor in discriminating between the N- and C-domains of these ACE enzymes. By comparing the ability of RXP407 to block purified somatic and germinal ACE from mice, RXP407 was shown to be a potent N-domain-selective inhibitor of mouse somatic ACE, a behavior similar to that observed with human somatic ACE. In contrast, RXP407 appeared less potent toward purified ACE from rat and furthermore was unable to block ACE activity present in crude rat plasma. This study demonstrated that for further evaluation of the in vivo efficacy of RXP407, mice rather than rats should be used as the animal model. Thus, following the change in the Ac-S-D-K-P plasmatic levels, after i.v. injection of RXP407 to mice, will permit the potency and selectivity of this novel ACE inhibitor to be assessed.

Aminopeptidase A, which generates one of the main effector peptides of the brain renin-angiotensin system, angiotensin III, has a key role in central control of arterial blood pressure.

Overactivity of the brain renin-angiotensin system (RAS) has been implicated in the development and maintenance of hypertension in several experimental animal models. We have recently reported that, in the murine brain RAS, angiotensin II (AngII) is converted by aminopeptidase A (APA) into angiotensin III (AngIII),which is itself degraded by aminopeptidase N (APN), both peptides being equipotent to increase vasopressin release and arterial blood pressure when injected by the intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) route. Because AngII is converted in vivo into AngIII, the exact nature of the active peptide is not precisely known. To delineate their respective roles in the central control of cardiovascular functions, specific and selective APA and APN inhibitors are needed to block the metabolic pathways of AngII and AngIII respectively. In the absence of such compounds for APA, we first explored the organization of the APA active site by site-directed mutagenesis. This led us to propose a molecular mechanism of action for APA similar to that proposed for the bacterial enzyme thermolysin deduced from X-ray diffraction studies. Secondly, we developed a specific and selective APA inhibitor, compound EC33 [(S)-3-amino-4-mercaptobutylsulphonic acid], as well as a potent and selective APN inhibitor, PC18 (2-amino-4-methylsulphonylbutane thiol). With these new tools we examined the respective roles of AngII and AngIII in the central control of arterial blood pressure. A central blockade of APA with the APA inhibitor EC33 suppressed the pressor effect of exogenous AngII, suggesting that brain AngII must be converted into AngIII to increase arterial blood pressure. Furthermore, EC33, injected alone i.c.v. but not intravenously, caused a dose-dependent decrease in arterial blood pressure by blocking the formation of brain AngIII but not systemic AngIII. This is corroborated by the fact that the selective APN inhibitor PC18 administered alone via the i.c.v. route increased arterial blood pressure. This pressor response was blocked by prior treatment with the angiotensin type 1 receptor antagonist losartan, showing that blocking the action of APN on AngIII metabolism leads to an increase in endogenous AngIII levels, resulting in arterial blood pressure increase through an interaction with angiotensin type 1 receptors. These results demonstrate that AngIII is a major effector peptide of the brain RAS, exerting a tonic stimulatory control over arterial blood pressure. Thus APA, the enzyme responsible for the formation of brain AngIII, represents a potential central therapeutic target that justifies the development of APA inhibitors, crossing the blood-brain barrier, as central anti-hypertensive agents.

Histidine 450 plays a critical role in catalysis and, with Ca2+, contributes to the substrate specificity of aminopeptidase A.

Aminopeptidase A (EC 3.4.11.7, APA) is a 130 kDa membrane-bound protease that contains the HEXXH consensus sequence found in the zinc metalloprotease family, the zincins. In addition to the catalytic zinc atom, APA contains a Ca2+ ion that increases its enzymatic activity. Aligning the sequences of the mouse APA, APN, and other monozinc aminopeptidases led to the identification of a conserved histidine (His 450 in mouse APA). Replacing this residue with a phenylalanine (Phe 450) by site-directed mutagenesis resulted in markedly lower levels of APA activity and in a change in the sensitivity of APA to Ca2+ (the EC50 for Ca2+ was 25 microM in the wild type and only 279 microM in the mutant). Kinetic studies, with a supramaximal Ca2+ concentration (4 mM), showed that the Km of the mutant enzyme for the substrate alpha-L-glutamyl-beta-naphthylamide was 25 times higher than that of the wild type, whereas the kcat value was much lower (factor of 22). Thus, overall, the wild-type enzyme had a cleavage efficiency that was 571 times higher than that of the mutant. The inhibitory potencies of two different classes of inhibitors, a glutamate thiol and a glutamate phosphonate compound, were significantly lower (factors of 19 and 22, respectively) for the mutated enzyme than for the wild-type enzyme. In contrast, inhibition by lysine thiol was unaffected. These data strongly suggest that His 450 is critical for catalytic activity and is involved in substrate binding via interaction with the P1 carboxylate side chain of the substrate. Furthermore, His 450, together with Ca2+, may contribute to the substrate specificity of APA for N-terminal acidic amino acid residues.

Potent and selective inhibition of zinc aminopeptidase A (EC 3.4.11.7, APA) by glutamyl aminophosphinic peptides: importance of glutamyl aminophosphinic residue in the P1 position.

Through the development of a new chemical strategy, aminophosphinic peptides containing a pseudoglutamyl residue (Glu Psi(PO2-CH2)Leu-Xaa) in the N-terminal position were synthesized and evaluated as inhibitors of aminopeptidase A (APA). The most potent inhibitor developed in this study, Glu Psi(PO2-CH2)Leu-Ala, displayed a Ki value of 0.8 nM for APA, but was much less effective in blocking aminopeptidase N (APN) (Ki = 31 microM). The critical role of the glutamyl residue in this phosphinic peptide, both in potency and selectivity, is exemplified by the P1 position analogue, Ala Psi(PO2-CH2)Leu-Ala, which exhibited a Ki value of 0.9 microM toward APA but behaved as a rather potent inhibitor of APN (Ki = 25 nM). Glu Psi(PO2-CH2)Leu-Xaa peptides are poor inhibitors of angiotensin converting enzyme (Ki values higher than 1 microM). Depending on the nature of the Xaa residue, the potency of these phosphinic peptides toward neutral endopeptidase 24-11 varied from 50 nM to 3 microM. In view of the in vivo role of APA in the formation of brain angiotensin III, one of the main effector peptides of the renin angiotensin system in the central nervous system, highly potent and selective inhibitors of APA may find important therapeutic applications soon.

Identification of HLA-G7 as a new splice variant of the HLA-G mRNA and expression of soluble HLA-G5, -G6, and -G7 transcripts in human transfected cells.

The nonclassical HLA-G primary transcript is alternatively spliced to generate several mRNAs that have the capacity to encode four membrane bound isoforms, namely HLA-G1, -G2, -G3, and -G4 and two soluble isoforms HLA-G5 and -G6. We aimed at defining the capacity of full length and truncated soluble HLA-G transcripts to be translated in human cell lines. Our study of HLA-G alternative transcripts in various human tissues led us to identify a new splice variant of the HLA-G mRNA, named G7, in which open reading frame continues in intron 2. Due to the presence of a stop codon within intron 2, HLA-G7 transcripts retain the capacity to be translated as soluble truncated HLA-G proteins bearing the alpha1 domain linked to two specific aminoacids encoded by intron 2. Expression vectors containing cDNAs encoding HLA-G5, -G6, and -G7 isoforms were transfected into human cell lines. The presence of translated HLA-G5, -G6, and -G7 proteins was detected in protein extracts of transfected cells by Western blot and immunoprecipitation, but only the full length HLA-G5 soluble isoform could be clearly detected as a secreted protein in both transfected cells supernatants and body fluids.

RXP 407, a phosphinic peptide, is a potent inhibitor of angiotensin I converting enzyme able to differentiate between its two active sites.

The human somatic angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) contains two homologous domains, each bearing a zinc-dependent active site. All of the synthetic inhibitors of this enzyme used in clinical applications interact with these two active sites to a similar extent. Recently, several lines of evidence have suggested that the N-terminal active site of ACE might be involved in specific hydrolysis of some important physiological substrates, like Acetyl-Seryl-Aspartyl-Lysyl-Proline, a negative regulator of hematopoietic stem cell differentiation and proliferation. These findings have stimulated studies aimed at identifying new ACE inhibitors able to block only one of the two active sites of this enzyme. By screening phosphinic peptide libraries, we discovered a phosphinic peptide Ac-Asp-(L)Phepsi(PO2-CH2)(L)Ala-Ala-NH2, called RXP 407, which is able to differentiate the two ACE active sites, with a dissociation constant three orders of magnitude lower for the N-domain of the enzyme. The usefulness of a combinatorial chemistry approach to develop new lead structures is underscored by the unusual chemical structure of RXP 407, as compared with classical ACE inhibitors. As a highly potent and selective inhibitor of the N-terminal active site of wild ACE (Ki = 12 nM), RXP 407, which is metabolically stable in vivo, may lead to a new generation of ACE inhibitors able to block in vivo only a subset of the different functions regulated by ACE.

Production and properties of a recombinant soluble form of aminopeptidase A.

Aminopeptidase A is a homodimeric membrane-bound zinc metallopeptidase anchored at the plasma membrane by a 22-amino-acid hydrophobic segment. The anchor segment separates a small N-terminal cytoplasmic domain from a large ectodomain that contains the active site. Site-directed mutagenesis was performed to investigate the role of the cytoplasmic domain of aminopeptidase A in membrane anchoring and routing of the enzyme. Expression in COS-7 cells of a mutant lacking the N-terminal cytoplasmic domain resulted in the efficient secretion of a catalytically active enzyme in the medium. The soluble mutated aminopeptidase A, purified from the medium of a stable cell line, exhibited similar biochemical features to those of the wild-type enzyme. Pulse/chase metabolic labeling experiments revealed that the soluble form is generated intracellularly at an early stage of biosynthesis, suggesting that the signal peptide/membrane anchor domain of aminopeptidase A is removed in the endoplasmic reticulum through the action of the signal peptidase.

A glutamate residue contributes to the exopeptidase specificity in aminopeptidase A.

Aminopeptidase A (EC 3.4.11.7, APA) is a 130 kDa membrane-bound aminopeptidase that contains the consensus sequence HEXXH (385-389) found in the zinc metalloprotease family, the zincins. Sequence alignment of the mouse APA with other monozinc-aminopeptidases indicates the presence of a highly conserved glutamate residue (Glu352 in APA) found in the conserved motif GAMEN (349-353). In monozinc-aminopeptidases, the negative charge of the glutamate side-chain carboxylate may constitute the anionic binding site involved in the recognition of the free amino group of substrates or inhibitors. The functional role of Glu352 in APA was investigated by substituting this residue with an aspartate (Asp352), a glycine (Gly352), a glutamine (Gln352) or an arginine (Arg352) residue by site-directed mutagenesis. Kinetic studies showed that the Km values of the mutant enzymes were unaffected, whereas kcat values were decreased 10-250-fold, resulting in a 10-, 30- 260- and 400-fold reduction in cleavage efficiencies for the mutants Asp352, Gly352, Gln352 and Arg352 respectively. The inhibitory potency of two different classes of inhibitors, a thiol and a phosphonate compound, was significantly (P<0.05) decreased by 10- and 4-fold respectively in the mutated enzymes. Moreover, the inhibitory potency of angiotensin I, used as a competitor of the synthetic substrate alpha-l-glutamyl beta-naphthylamide, displayed a 4-fold reduction (P<0.01) in the mutated enzymes, whereas the Ki values of its N-acetyl derivative were unchanged. These data strongly suggest that Glu352 is involved in the catalytic process of APA and contributes to the exopeptidase activity of this enzyme through interaction with the N-terminal part of substrates or inhibitors.

A tyrosine residue essential for catalytic activity in aminopeptidase A.

Aminopeptidase A (EC 3.4.11.7; APA) is a 130 kDa membrane-bound zinc enzyme that contains the consensus sequence HEXXH (residues 385-389) conserved among the zinc metalloprotease family. In this motif, both histidine residues and the glutamic residue were shown to be involved respectively in zinc co-ordination and catalytic activity. Treatment of APA with N-acetylimidazole results in a loss of enzymic activity; this is prevented by the competitive aminopeptidase inhibitor amastatin, suggesting the presence of an important tyrosine, lysine or cysteine residue at the active site of APA. A tyrosine residue was previously proposed to be involved in the enzymic activity of aminopeptidase N. Furthermore sequence alignment of mouse APA with other monozinc aminopeptidases indicates the presence of a conserved tyrosine (Tyr-471 in APA). The functional role of Tyr-471 in APA was investigated by replacing this residue with a phenylalanine (Phe-471) or a histidine (His-471) residue by site-directed mutagenesis. Kinetic studies showed that the Km values of both mutants were similar to that of the wild-type enzyme, whereas kcat values were decreased by three orders of magnitude and corresponded to a variation in free energy of the rate-limiting step by 4.0 and 4.2 kcal/mol (0.96 and 1.00 kJ/mol) for the Phe-471 and His-471 mutants respectively. The mutation did not modify the inhibitory potency of a thiol-containing inhibitor that strongly chelates the active-site zinc ion, whereas that of a putative analogue of the transition state presumed to mimic the reaction intermediate was reduced. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that the Tyr-471 hydroxy group participates in catalysis by stabilizing the transition state complex through interaction with the oxyanion.

Identification of glutamate residues essential for catalytic activity and zinc coordination in aminopeptidase A.

Aminopeptidase A (EC 3.4.11.7, APA) is a homodimeric membrane-bound glycoprotein that contains the consensus sequence HEXXH(385-389) found in zinc metallopeptidases such as thermolysin. The x-ray structure of the latter enzyme revealed that the two histidines of this motif are two of the three zinc-coordinating ligands and that the glutamate is a crucial amino acid involved in catalysis. Alignment of the sequence of mouse APA with those of the already characterized metallopeptidases showed the presence of several conserved amino acids such as a glutamate residue in position 408 which may constitute the putative third zinc ligand. The functional implication of this residue and the role of glutamate 386 in the HELVH(385-389) motif of APA have been investigated by replacing these residues with an aspartate (Asp-386, Asp-408) or an alanine (Ala-386, Ala-408) by site-directed mutagenesis. Expressed mutated proteins in position 386 showed no APA activity. Ala-408 was also inactive, and Asp-408 had 5% of the wild type enzyme activity and a similar Km. 65Zn incorporation measurements indicated that Ala-386 binds the zinc ion as well as the wild type enzyme, whereas the Ala-408 mutant did not. These results provide evidence that Glu-408 is the third zinc-coordinating residue of APA, confirm the presumed involvement of Glu-386 in the catalytic process of the enzyme, and identify APA as a zinc metallopeptidase functionally similar to thermolysin.

The RESA-2 gene of Plasmodium falciparum is transcribed in several independent isolates.

The relevance of the ring-infected erythrocyte surface antigen (RESA) of Plasmodium falciparum as a malaria vaccine candidate has been questioned of late because RESA-deficient parasites have been found to multiply normally in culture or in monkeys. The RESA-2 gene was recently described as a pseudogene highly homologous to RESA. In this report, we demonstrate that RESA-2 is not a pseudogene, because we were able to detect RESA-2 transcripts in asexual blood stages of multiple isolates by using polymerase chain reaction on reverse-transcribed mRNA. Transcription of RESA-2 was observed whether or not the isolates studied expressed the RESA protein.

The virulent Saimiri-adapted Palo Alto strain of Plasmodium falciparum does not express the ring-infected erythrocyte surface antigen.

The Palo Alto strain of Plasmodium falciparum is highly virulent for the Saimiri sciureus monkey. We have observed that these parasites do not express the Ring-infected erythrocyte surface antigene (RESA) gene. Immunoblots indicated that the Pf155/RESA protein was absent. The RESA mRNA could not be detected. Polymerase chain reaction and Southern blot analysis demonstrated that this lack of expression is due to gene rearrangements. The majority of the Palo Alto parasites have a deletion of the entire RESA gene, whereas in a minor fraction the RESA sequences remain detectable, but the 5' miniexon 1 is inverted. These data show that the RESA protein is dispensable for in vivo parasite growth, at least in Saimiri monkeys.

Cell-associated and soluble phospholipases A2 increase during carrageenan and zymosan-induced pleurisy in rat.

Extra-cellular and cell-associated Ca(2+)-dependent phospholipases A2 and released thromboxane B2 were correlated to exudation and cell migration during rat pleurisy induced by carrageenan or zymosan. Extra-cellular phospholipase A2 was delayed with respect to acute inflammation, while cell-associated phospholipase A2 closely correlated with cell migration and thromboxane B2 levels. This confirms that the subcellular localization of phospholipases A2 is linked to their physiological action and, in particular, suggests that the cell-associated, rather than the extracellular enzyme, accounts for the production of eicosanoids.