Anisotropy of the apparent frequency dependence of backscatter in formalin fixed human myocardium.

Measurements of the frequency dependence of ultrasonic backscatter are presented for specific angles of insonification for regions of infarcted and noninfarcted human myocardium. A 5-MHz transducer was used to insonify cylindrical cores taken from 7 noninfarcted regions and 12 infarcted regions of the left ventricular free wall of 6 formalin-fixed human hearts explanted because of ischemic cardiomyopathy. The dependence of apparent (uncompensated for diffraction effects and attenuation) backscatter on frequency was approximated by a power-law dependence, magnitude of B(f)2 = afn. Under ideal conditions in a lossless medium, the effect of not compensating for the effects of diffraction and attenuation leads to the value of n to be 2.0 for Rayleigh scatterers while the frequency dependence of the fully compensated backscatter coefficient would be f4. The value of n was determined over the frequency range, 3-7 MHz. Both nonifarcted and infarcted myocardium exhibited anisotropy of the frequency dependence of backscatter, with maxima occurring at angles that were perpendicular to the predominant myofiber direction and minima when parallel to the fibers. Perpendicular insonification yielded results for n of 1.8 +/- 0.1 for noninfarcted myocardium and 1.2 +/- 0.1 for infarcted myocardium while parallel insonification yielded results of 0.4 +/- 0.1 for noninfarcted and 0.0 +/- 0.1 for infarcted myocardium. The functional form of the angle-dependent backscatter is similar for both noninfarcted and infarcted myocardium, although the frequency dependence is clearly different for both tissue states for all angles of insonification. The results of this study indicate that the anisotropy of the frequency dependence of backscatter may play a significant role in ultrasonic imaging and is an important consideration for ultrasonic tissue characterization in myocardium.

Anisotropy of the slope of ultrasonic attenuation in formalin fixed human myocardium.

Clinical implementation of quantitative ultrasonic tissue characterization is likely to require imaging the heart with sound propagating at varying angles relative to the fibers of the heart. Under these circumstances, the variation of the ultrasonic properties of myocardium with the angle of propagation relative to the myofibers may represent a significant source of potential misinterpretation. In the present study, the systematic approach of assessing the impact of anisotropy on quantitative myocardial tissue characterization is extended by reporting results of a recent in vitro study to measure the anisotropy of the slope of ultrasonic attenuation in specimens of formalin fixed human myocardium. Data obtained from regions of remote infarct are presented and compared to data acquired from regions identified to be free of infarct. The slope of attenuation for both regions exhibit a sinusoid-like dependence on angle that is approximately doubled for propagation parallel to the fibers as compared to perpendicular. These results are, in turn, compared to an earlier study from the laboratory that examined the effects of myocardial infarction on ultrasonic attenuation and interstitial collagen content in freshly excised canine hearts. Discussion regarding the analysis and interpretation of measurements of slope of attenuation is presented as well as a discussion of the possible influence of formalin fixation on our results.

Estimation of the elastic stiffness coefficient c13 of fixed tendon and fixed myocardium.

Recent studies from our laboratory have detailed the anisotropy of velocity of quasilongitudinal-mode ultrasonic waves through formalin fixed samples of normal human myocardium and bovine Achilles tendon. Results of these studies were used to determine the elastic stiffness coefficients c33, corresponding to the propagation of longitudinal-mode waves parallel to the fiber axis of the tissue, and c11, corresponding to the propagation of longitudinal-mode waves perpendicular to the fiber axis. For a tissue possessing a unidirectional arrangement of fibers with a random transverse distribution, three additional coefficients, c13, c44, and c12, are needed to describe its linear mechanical properties completely. Direct ultrasonic measurements of these coefficients in solids typically require the propagation of transverse-mode waves through the sample. Such measurements are difficult to perform in soft tissues because transverse-mode ultrasonic waves are very highly attenuated by the tissue. This study therefore employs a technique to estimate c13 based on measurements of the velocity of quasilongitudinal-mode ultrasonic waves for numerous angles of propagation relative to the fiber axis of the tissue. Analysis of data obtained from formalin fixed bovine Achilles tendon and human myocardium yield estimated values for c13 of 3.17 and 2.46 GPa, respectively.

Comparison of the anisotropy of apparent integrated ultrasonic backscatter from fixed human tendon and fixed human myocardium.

The content and organization of collagen in the cardiac interstitium may represent significant determinants of the ultrasonic scattering properties of myocardium. This study was designed to investigate the anisotropic backscattering properties of a fibrous soft tissue exhibiting an ordered arrangement of fibers similar to myocardium, but possessing a substantially greater content of collagen. Human Achilles tendon was chosen for this study because it possesses a simple unidirectional arrangement of fibers and a high content of collagen compared to normal myocardium. Integrated (frequency-averaged) backscatter was measured from ten formalin fixed samples of tendon as a function of insonifying angle relative to the fiber axis of the tissue. The samples were insonified in a water bath using a 5-MHz center frequency piezoelectric transducer. Maximum backscatter occurred for insonification perpendicular to the fibers, and minimum backscatter occurred for insonification parallel to the fibers. The mean peak to nadir variation, or magnitude of anisotropy, of integrated backscatter for the ten formalin fixed samples of tendon was 36.3 dB. This compares to 14.5 dB for formalin fixed human myocardium measured in an earlier study by our laboratory.

Effect of collagen on the anisotropy of quasi-longitudinal mode ultrasonic velocity in fibrous soft tissues: a comparison of fixed tendon and fixed myocardium.

The widespread use of echocardiography has generated considerable interest in the ultrasonic properties of myocardial collagen. This study was designed to investigate the effect of collagen on the propagation of ultrasound by measuring the anisotropy of ultrasonic velocity through formalin fixed specimens of bovine Achilles tendon. Tendon was chosen for this study because it possesses a high content of collagen and a well-defined unidirectional arrangement of fibers. Ultrasonic velocity data were acquired from nine samples of fixed tendon that were each insonified at multiple angles relative to the fibers in 2 degrees increments for a full 360 degrees. Analysis of the data revealed a substantial angular dependence of velocity qualitatively similar to that reported for formalin fixed specimens of normal human myocardium, but approximately 17 times larger in magnitude. Together with measured values of density, these results were used to compute the elastic stiffness coefficients C11 (corresponding to propagation perpendicular to the fibers) and C33 (corresponding to propagation parallel to the fibers) of fixed tendon, yielding 3.08 and 4.51 GPa, respectively.

Anisotropy of ultrasonic velocity and elastic properties in normal human myocardium.

Measurements of ultrasonic quasilongitudinal velocity were made in the muscle fiber plane of excised human myocardium. Multiple adjacent planes across the left ventricular wall were interrogated to assess the transmural dependence of velocity. For each measurement plane, data were obtained in 2-deg increments through the full 360 deg relative to the myofibers. An approximate 1.3% magnitude of anisotropy was observed with maximum velocity along the muscle fibers and minimum velocity perpendicular to the muscle fibers. The known transmural shift in myofiber orientation was evidenced in the anisotropy of velocity as angular shifts between plots obtained from adjacent transmural planes within the same specimen. Measured values of velocity and density were used to estimate the effective C33 and C11 elastic constants of a thin layer of normal myocardium.

Detection of unique transmural architecture of human idiopathic cardiomyopathy by ultrasonic tissue characterization.

BACKGROUND: Noninvasive approaches to the evaluation of idiopathic cardiomyopathy are limited. Recent work from our laboratory has used quantitative ultrasound to define the three-dimensional structure of normal human myocardium and the myocardial remodeling associated with infarction. Our goal was to define the role of ultrasonic tissue characterization for detection of specific alterations in the three-dimensional transmural architecture of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. METHODS AND RESULTS: We measured frequency-dependent backscatter from 22 cylindrical biopsy specimens from nine explanted fixed hearts of patients who underwent heart transplantation for idiopathic cardiomyopathy, seven specimens from normal portions, and 12 specimens of infarcted tissue from six explanted fixed human hearts. Consecutive transmural levels from each specimen were insonified with a 5-MHz broadband transducer. The dependence of apparent (uncompensated for attenuation) backscatter, B(f), on frequency (f) was computed from radiofrequency (rf) data as: magnitude of B(f)2 = afn, where n is an index that reflects in part the size of the dominant scatterers in myocardial tissue. Myofiber diameter and percentage fibrosis were determined at each transmural level for each specimen. For cardiomyopathic tissue, the frequency dependence of backscatter (n) increased progressively from epicardial to endocardial (0.02 +/- 0.37 to 1.01 +/- 0.12, p less than 0.05) levels in conjunction with a progressive decrease in myofiber diameter (29.5 +/- 0.9 to 21.4 +/- 0.6 microns, p less than 0.0001). In contrast, in tissue from areas of infarction, the frequency dependence decreased progressively from epicardium to endocardium (0.91 +/- 0.20 to 0.23 +/- 0.21, p less than 0.05) in conjunction with a progressive increase in the percentage of fibrosis (23.5 +/- 9.4% to 54.5 +/- 4.9%, p less than 0.005). Normal tissue exhibited no significant transmural trend for frequency dependence, myofiber diameter, or percentage fibrosis. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate the presence of a heterogenous transmural distribution of scattering structures associated with human idiopathic cardiomyopathy and myocardial infarction that may be detected by ultrasonic tissue characterization. The divergence of these transmural trends for frequency dependence of backscatter reflects distinct mechanisms of structural heterogeneity for different pathological processes that comprise a transmural gradation of cell size and fibrosis for idiopathic cardiomyopathy and infarction, respectively.

Identification of human myocardial infarction in vitro based on the frequency dependence of ultrasonic backscatter.

It has been reported previously that acute and mature myocardial infarction in dogs can be differentiated in vitro and in vivo by ultrasonic tissue characterization based on measurement of the frequency dependence of ultrasonic backscatter. To characterize human infarction with an index of the frequency dependence of backscatter that could be obtained in patients, cylindrical biopsy specimens from 7 normal regions and 12 regions of infarction of 6 fixed, explanted human hearts in 2-deg steps around their entire circumference with a 5-MHz broadband transducer were insonified. One to six consecutive transmural levels were studied for each specimen. The dependence of apparent (uncompensated for attenuation or beam width) backscatter, /B(f)/2, on frequency (f) was computed from spectral analyses of radio-frequency data as /B(f)/2 = afn, where from theoretical considerations the magnitude of n decreases as scatterer size increases. Apparent integrated backscatter was computed as the average of /B(f)/2 from 3 to 7 MHz. The average value for n for normal tissue (0.9 +/- 0.1) exceeded that for tissue from regions of infarction (0.6 +/- 0.1; p less than 0.05). Infarct manifested a significant decrease of n from epicardial to endocardial levels (epi----mid----endo: 0.9----0.7----0.2; p less than 0.05) whereas normal tissue manifested similar values for n at each transmural level (0.8----1.1----0.9; p = NS). Average integrated backscatter across all transmural levels for infarct was significantly greater than for normal tissue (-48.3 +/- 0.5 vs -53.4 +/- 0.4 dB, infarct versus normal; p less than 0.05). The presence of fibrosis was associated with smaller values of n and greater integrated backscatter.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Structural remodeling of human myocardial tissue after infarction. Quantification with ultrasonic backscatter.

BACKGROUND: Remodeling of myocardial tissue after infarction may culminate in the development of either a well-healed scar or a thin, expanded heart wall segment that predisposes to ventricular aneurysm formation, congestive heart failure, or ventricular tachycardia. The three-dimensional architecture of mature human infarct tissue and the mechanisms that determine it have not been elucidated. We have previously shown that quantitative ultrasonic backscatter can be used to define the transmural organization of human myofibers in the normal ventricular wall by measuring the dependence of backscatter on the angle of insonification, or ultrasonic anisotropy. We propose that measurement of ultrasonic anisotropy of backscatter may permit quantitative characterization of the transmural architecture of tissue from areas of myocardial infarction and facilitate identification of fundamental mechanisms of remodeling of the ventricular wall. METHODS AND RESULTS: We measured integrated backscatter in 33 transmural sections from 12 cylindrical biopsy specimens (1.4-cm diameter) sampled from central regions of mature infarction in six explanted fixed human hearts. Tissue samples were insonified in two-degree steps around their entire circumference at successive transmural levels with a 5-MHz broad-band piezoelectric transducer. Backscatter radio frequency data were gated from the center of each specimen, and spectral analysis was performed on the gated radio frequency for the computation of integrated backscatter. Histological morphometric analysis was performed on each specimen for determination of the predominant fiber orientation and the percentage of tissue infarcted at consecutive transmural levels. The average percentage of tissue infarcted for all transmural levels was 49 +/- 3% (range, 13-80%). Histological attributes varied from patchy fibrosis to extensive confluent zones of scar tissue. The angle-averaged integrated backscatter for all transmural levels in infarct tissue was approximately 5 dB greater than that previously measured in normal tissue in our laboratory (-48.3 +/- 0.5 versus -53.4 +/- 0.4 dB, infarct versus normal). Marked anisotropy of backscatter was observed in tissue from areas of infarction and was characterized by a sinusoid-like dependence on the angle of insonification at each transmural level. Insonification perpendicular to infarct fibers yielded values for integrated backscatter 14.8 +/- 0.5 dB greater than those for insonification parallel to these fibers. Juxtaposition of the sinusoid-like anisotropy functions from all consecutive transmural levels demonstrated a progressive shift in the orientation of scar tissue elements from epicardial to endocardial levels of 14.6 +/- 1.5 degrees/mm of tissue. The transmural shift in fiber orientation per millimeter of tissue from the area of infarction exceeded that previously measured for normal tissue (9.2 +/- 0.7 degrees/mm) by 59%. This marked augmentation in angular shift per millimeter of tissue results from a generalized structural rearrangement (or reorientation) of fibers across the entire ventricular wall in the infarct zone that we hypothesize is determined in part by dynamic mechanical forces, imposed by the surrounding functional normal tissue, that tether the "infarcted" tissue. CONCLUSIONS: Myocardial tissue from areas of myocardial infarction manifests substantial anisotropy of ultrasonic scattering that may be useful for quantitative characterization of the alignment and overall three-dimensional anatomic organization of mature infarct scars.

Three-dimensional characterization of human ventricular myofiber architecture by ultrasonic backscatter.

Normal human left ventricular architecture comprises a highly aligned array of cardiac myofibers whose orientation depends on transmural location. This study was designed to determine whether measurement of integrated backscatter could be used detect the progressive transmural shift of myofiber alignment that occurs from epicardium to endocardium in human ventricular wall segments. Integrated backscatter was measured at 32 transmural levels in seven cylindrical biopsy specimens (1.4 cm diam) sampled from normal regions of six explanted fixed human hearts by insonification of samples at 180 independent angles in 2 degrees steps around their entire circumference with a 5-MHz broadband piezoelectric transducer. Histologic analysis was performed to determine fiber orientation. Integrated backscatter varied approximately as a sinusoidal function of the angle of insonification at each transmural level. Greater integrated backscatter was observed for insonification perpendicular as compared with parallel to fibers (difference = 14.5 +/- 0.6 dB). Ultrasonic analysis revealed a progressive transmural shift in fiber orientation of approximately 9.2 +/- 0.7 degrees/mm of tissue. Histologic analysis revealed a concordant shift in fiber orientation of 7.9 +/- 0.8 degrees/mm of tissue. Thus, human myocardium manifests anisotropy of ultrasonic scattering that may be useful for characterization of the intramural fiber alignment and overall three-dimensional organization of cardiac myofibers.