Encoding variability explains the multisensory benefit in recognition memory.

Numerous studies have found better memory for multimodal than unimodal stimuli. In these studies, however, multimodal stimuli consist not only of multiple modalities, but also of more varied information than unimodal. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated encoding variability as an explanation for the multisensory benefit. Written words were studied together with two different orienting questions that promoted processing of same modality (both visual or both auditory) or different modality information (one visual and one auditory). In Experiment 1, recognition memory did not differ between constant modality and varied modality conditions. In Experiment 2, we replicated this effect with items that were repeated at a lag and we found an advantage of any type of encoding variability (within and between modality) compared to a condition in which the same orienting question was repeated. In Experiments 3 and 4, these findings were replicated when there was a day delay between study and test. We conclude that we did find an encoding variability benefit on memory, but no multisensory benefit. This conclusion challenges the sensory integration explanation and provides support for encoding variability as an explanation of the multisensory benefit. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Comparing instructional strategies to support student teachers' learning to prepare an open-minded citizenship education lesson.

Open-mindedness is defined as one's willingness and ability to consider opposing beliefs and perspectives and give them a serious, impartial consideration by setting aside one's commitment towards one's own beliefs and perspectives. Learning to prepare and teach open-minded lessons is a crucial skill for student teachers because it fosters an atmosphere in which pupils feel free to express their own views and to learn about the views of others. The aim of this experiment was to examine which instructional strategy best supports student teachers' learning to prepare an open-minded citizenship education lesson. Therefore, participants (n = 176) processed an instruction on how to prepare an open-minded citizenship education lesson through learning by teaching on video, preparing to teach, or re-study (control condition), and as a post-test designed a lesson plan. We examined the completeness and accuracy of the explanations of the instructional content, feelings of social presence and arousal, open-mindedness levels, the completeness and accuracy of the lesson plans, and the conceptual knowledge of the instructional content. In addition, the lesson plans were graded on overall quality. Results showed that all participants scored higher on open-mindedness as measured with the Actively Open-minded Thinking scale after the experiment than before the experiment. Participants in the control condition prepared significantly more accurate and complete open-minded lessons than participants in the other two conditions, suggesting they have gained better understanding of the instructional content. There were no significant differences between the conditions on the other outcome measures.

A longitudinal analysis of conspiracy beliefs and Covid-19 health responses.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about how conspiracy beliefs and health responses are interrelated over time during the course of the coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) pandemic. This longitudinal study tested two contrasting, but not mutually exclusive, hypotheses through cross-lagged modeling. First, based on the consequential nature of conspiracy beliefs, we hypothesize that conspiracy beliefs predict an increase in detrimental health responses over time. Second, as people may rationalize their behavior through conspiracy beliefs, we hypothesize that detrimental health responses predict increased conspiracy beliefs over time. METHODS: We measured conspiracy beliefs and several health-related responses (i.e. physical distancing, support for lockdown policy, and the perception of the coronavirus as dangerous) at three phases of the pandemic in the Netherlands (N = 4913): During the first lockdown (Wave 1: April 2020), after the first lockdown (Wave 2: June 2020), and during the second lockdown (Wave 3: December 2020). RESULTS: For physical distancing and perceived danger, the overall cross-lagged effects supported both hypotheses, although the standardized effects were larger for the effects of conspiracy beliefs on these health responses than vice versa. The within-person change results only supported an effect of conspiracy beliefs on these health responses, depending on the phase of the pandemic. Furthermore, an overall cross-lagged effect of conspiracy beliefs on reduced support for lockdown policy emerged from Wave 2 to 3. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide stronger support for the hypothesis that conspiracy beliefs predict health responses over time than for the hypothesis that health responses predict conspiracy beliefs over time.

Gathering, processing, and interpreting information about COVID-19.

Does cognitive motivation influence how people gather and interpret information about COVID-19 and their adherence to measures? To address these questions, we conducted a longitudinal survey among European and American respondents. Wave 1 (N = 501) was conducted on March 27, 2020 and Wave 2 (N = 326) on July 1, 2020. We assessed COVID-19 knowledge, endorsement of COVID-19 conspiracy theories, media use, Need for Cognition (NC), Need for Cognitive Closure (NCC), and self-reported adherence to governmental measures taken. Results showed that nearly three-quarters of our respondents actively searched for information about COVID-19. Most at least once a day. Information seeking behaviour was not influenced by cognitive motivation (i.e., NC and NCC). However, cognitive motivation was related to (1) knowledge about COVID-19, (2) conspiracy rejection, and (3) change in knowledge over time. Respondents with more knowledge on COVID-19 also indicated to adhere more often to measures taken by their government. Self-reported adherence to measures was not influenced by cognitive motivation. Implications of these findings will be discussed.

Daily activities, participation, satisfaction, and functional mobility of adults with cerebral palsy more than 25 years after selective dorsal rhizotomy: a long-term follow-up during adulthood.

PURPOSE: To determine changes in level of accomplishment and satisfaction in daily activities and social participation, and functional mobility in adults with cerebral palsy (CP) more than 25 years after selective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR). MATERIALS AND METHODS: This long-term observational nine-year follow-up study included 26 adults (median age 35 years) with CP and spastic diplegia, and 26 matched typically developing adults. Assessment tools used were the Life-Habits questionnaire and the Functional Mobility Scale. RESULTS: Most of the adults with CP were independent and satisfied with accomplishing life habits and no changes were determined, except for a small change in the Housing accomplishment level. Compared to typically developing adults, the CP cohort was more dependent in accomplishing Mobility and Recreation. However, the level of satisfaction was similar for most life habits except for Mobility. Functional mobility did not change, but correlated with Life-Habits results. CONCLUSIONS: Adults with CP showed high and stable levels of accomplishment and satisfaction in daily activities and social participation more than 25 years after SDR. This is in contrast with the literature, where functional decline was shown for individuals with CP as they age. The relation with functional mobility highlights the importance to focus the rehabilitation on maintaining walking ability in order to enable high level of daily activities and social participation in adults with CP.Implications for rehabilitationSelective dorsal rhizotomy (SDR) is a valuable treatment option for a selective group of children with cerebral palsy (CP) in order to reduce spasticity.The long-term outcomes of SDR on level of accomplishment and satisfaction in daily activities and social participation as well functional mobility in adults with CP are not clear.More than 25 years after SDR adults with CP experienced stable and lasting high levels of functioning regarding daily activities and social participation and were satisfied with the way they accomplished life habits.Functional mobility was correlated to level of accomplishment and satisfaction in daily activities and social participation, which highlights the importance to focus rehabilitation programs on maintaining functional mobility in order to enable daily activities and social participation in adults with CP.

The level of accomplishment and satisfaction in activity and participation of adults with cerebral palsy and spastic diplegia.

BACKGROUND: Orthopaedic surgery is commonly performed in children with cerebral palsy (CP) and spastic diplegia to improve functional mobility. However, no research has quantified levels of accomplishment and satisfaction in daily activities and participation long-term after surgery. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate 1) the level of accomplishment and satisfaction of life habits in adults with CP, 2) whether there were differences between Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) levels, and 3) associations with contextual factors, functional level and frequency of pain. METHODS: Levels of accomplishment and satisfaction in activity and participation were assessed using the Life-Habits 3.1 questionnaire in 30 adults with CP and spastic diplegia who received the first orthopaedic intervention more than 15 years ago (age: median [interquartile range (IQR)] = 27:8 [21:7-33:8] y:mo; GMFCS level I/II/III: n = 15/11/4). GMFCS and Functional Mobility Scale (FMS) assessed mobility over 5 m, 50 m and 500 m. Participants reported frequency of back pain and pain in the lower and upper limb. RESULTS: On average 63% of the participants were independent and faced no difficulties in the accomplishment of all life habits. Difficulties were mostly experienced for 'mobility', 'housing' and 'recreation' (all 61%). Participants were overall satisfied, with lowest scores for 'employment' (13% dissatisfied). Between the GMFCS levels, accomplishment scores of participants with level I were significantly higher than level II. In addition, negative associations were found between accomplishment of life habits and GMFCS level, FMS, and pain on spinal level. CONCLUSION: Levels of accomplishment and satisfaction were relatively high among adults with CP who underwent orthopaedic interventions during childhood. However, negative associations between accomplishment levels and level of functioning and back pain argue for rehabilitation programs specialized on these factors. This information is imperative for physicians and allied health care professionals to guide adults with CP during ageing.

The effect of layout and pacing on learning from diagrams with unnecessary text.

Although the presentation of extraneous (i.e., irrelevant or unnecessary) information hinders learning, it is unclear whether and how layout and pacing influence this effect. In two experiments, participants learned how the heart functions using four different layouts: a diagram presented without unnecessary text (diagram only), with unnecessary text separated from the diagram (separated) or integrated into the diagram (integrated), or with separated unnecessary text and the instruction to integrate (integration instruction). In Experiment 1, study time was self-paced for half of the participants and system paced for the other half. There were no effects of layout and of pacing on learning, although system pacing was more effortful than self-pacing. In Experiment 2, which was system paced and employed eye tracking, the integrated condition showed worse learning outcomes than the separated condition. Moreover, in the integrated condition, participants made more integration attempts between the unnecessary text and the diagram than in the separated condition.

Participant Nonnaiveté and the reproducibility of cognitive psychology.

Many argue that there is a reproducibility crisis in psychology. We investigated nine well-known effects from the cognitive psychology literature-three each from the domains of perception/action, memory, and language, respectively-and found that they are highly reproducible. Not only can they be reproduced in online environments, but they also can be reproduced with nonnaïve participants with no reduction of effect size. Apparently, some cognitive tasks are so constraining that they encapsulate behavior from external influences, such as testing situation and prior recent experience with the experiment to yield highly robust effects.

The testing effect for mediator final test cues and related final test cues in online and laboratory experiments.

BACKGROUND: The testing effect is the finding that information that is retrieved during learning is more often correctly retrieved on a final test than information that is restudied. According to the semantic mediator hypothesis the testing effect arises because retrieval practice of cue-target pairs (mother-child) activates semantically related mediators (father) more than restudying. Hence, the mediator-target (father-child) association should be stronger for retrieved than restudied pairs. Indeed, Carpenter (2011) found a larger testing effect when participants received mediators (father) than when they received target-related words (birth) as final test cues. METHODS: The present study started as an attempt to test an alternative account of Carpenter's results. However, it turned into a series of conceptual (Experiment 1) and direct (Experiment 2 and 3) replications conducted with online samples. The results of these online replications were compared with those of similar existing laboratory experiments through small-scale meta-analyses. RESULTS: The results showed that (1) the magnitude of the raw mediator testing effect advantage is comparable for online and laboratory experiments, (2) in both online and laboratory experiments the magnitude of the raw mediator testing effect advantage is smaller than in Carpenter's original experiment, and (3) the testing effect for related cues varies considerably between online experiments. CONCLUSIONS: The variability in the testing effect for related cues in online experiments could point toward moderators of the related cue short-term testing effect. The raw mediator testing effect advantage is smaller than in Carpenter's original experiment.

The Testing Effect and Far Transfer: The Role of Exposure to Key Information.

Butler (2010: Experiment 3) showed that retrieval practice enhanced transfer to a new knowledge domain compared to rereading. The first experiment of the present study was a direct replication of Butler's third experiment. Participants studied text passages and then either reread them three times or went through three cycles of cued recall questions (i.e., retrieval practice) with feedback. As in Butler's (2010) experiment, an advantage of retrieval practice on the final far transfer test emerged after 1 week. Additionally, we observed an advantage of retrieval practice on the final test administered after 5 min. However, these advantages might have been due to participants in the retrieval practice condition receiving focused exposure to the key information (i.e., the feedback) that was needed to answer the final test questions. We therefore conducted a second experiment in which we included the retrieval practice condition and the reread condition from our first experiment, as well as a new reread-plus-statements condition. In the reread-plus-statements condition, participants received focused exposure to the key information after they had reread a text. As in Experiment 1, we found a large effect on far transfer when retrieval practice was compared to rereading. However, this effect was substantially reduced when retrieval practice was compared to the reread-plus-statements condition. Taken together, the results of the present experiments demonstrate that Butler's (2010) testing effect in far transfer is robust. Moreover, focused exposure to key information appears to be a significant factor in this far transfer testing effect.

Does intuition cause cooperation?

Recently, researchers claimed that people are intuitively inclined to cooperate with reflection causing them to behave selfishly. Empirical support for this claim came from experiments using a 4-player public goods game with a marginal return of 0.5 showing that people contributed more money to a common project when they had to decide quickly (i.e., a decision based on intuition) than when they were instructed to reflect and decide slowly. This intuitive-cooperation effect is of high scientific and practical importance because it argues against a central assumption of traditional economic and evolutionary models. The first experiment of present study was set up to examine the generality of the intuitive-cooperation effect and to further validate the experimental task producing the effect. In Experiment 1, we investigated Amazon Mechanical Turk (AMT) workers' contributions to a 4-player public goods game with a marginal return of 0.5 while we manipulated the knowledge about the other players' contribution to the public goods game (contribution known vs. contribution unknown), the identity of the other players (humans vs. computers randomly generating contributions) and the time constraint (time pressure/intuition vs. forced delay/reflection). However, the results of Experiment 1 failed to reveal an intuitive-cooperation effect. Furthermore, four subsequent direct replications attempts with AMT workers (Experiments 2a, 2b, 2c and Experiment 3, which was conducted with naïve/inexperienced participants) also failed to demonstrate intuitive-cooperation effects. Taken together, the results of the present study could not corroborate the idea that people are intuitively cooperative, hence suggesting that the theoretical relationship between intuition and cooperation should be further scrutinized.

Is spacing really the "friend of induction"?

Inductive learning takes place when people learn a new concept or category by observing a variety of exemplars. Kornell and Bjork (2008) asked participants to learn new painting styles either by presenting different paintings of the same artist consecutively (massed presentation) or by mixing paintings of different artists (spaced presentation). In their second experiment, Kornell and Bjork (2008) showed with a final style recognition test, that spacing resulted in better inductive learning than massing. Also, by using this style recognition test, they ruled out the possibility that spacing merely resulted in a better memory for the labels of the newly learned painting styles. The findings from Kornell and Bjork's (2008) second experiment are important because they show that the benefit of spaced learning generalizes to complex learning tasks and outcomes, and that it is not confined to rote memory learning. However, the findings from Kornell and Bjork's (2008) second experiment have never been replicated. In the present study we performed an exact and high-powered replication of Kornell and Bjork's (2008) second experiment with a Web-based sample. Such a replication contributes to establish the reliability of the original finding and hence to more conclusive evidence of the spacing effect in inductive learning. The findings from the present replication attempt revealed a medium-sized advantage of spacing over massing in inductive learning, which was comparable to the original effect in the experiment by Kornell and Bjork (2008). Also, the 95% confidence intervals (CI) of the effect sizes from both experiments overlapped considerably. Hence, the findings from the present replication experiment and the original experiment clearly reinforce each other.

The spacing effect in immediate and delayed free recall.

Spacing repetitions improves learning relative to massing repetitions (the spacing effect). While most studies have examined the spacing effect at short retention intervals, there are contradictory claims about its fate at a delay. Certain empirical findings suggest that the spacing effect persists at a delay. However, a recent theoretical account proposes that in free recall the spacing effect should disappear at a delay. The few studies that have examined the spacing effect at a delay are sub-optimally designed, preventing an unbiased conclusion. The current study used incidental learning and controlled recency and encoding strategy in order to examine the effect of delay on the recall of spaced items within a free recall paradigm. The results demonstrated that the spacing effect persists after a delay. The results point to an important dissociation between intentional forgetting and context-change designs (which produce more forgetting of spaced than massed items) and the passage of time (which produces similar forgetting of spaced and massed items).

Borderline personality disorder and emotional intelligence.

The present study investigated emotional intelligence (EI) in borderline personality disorder (BPD). It was hypothesized that patients with BPD (n = 61) compared with patients with other personality disorders (PDs; n = 69) and nonpatients (n = 248) would show higher scores on the ability to perceive emotions and impairments in the ability to regulate emotions. EI was assessed with the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso [New York: MHS, 2002]). As compared with the PD group and the nonpatient group, the patients with BPD displayed the anticipated deficits in their ability to understand, whereas no differences emerged with respect to their ability to perceive, use, and regulate emotions. In addition, a negative relationship was found between the severity of BPD and total EI score. However, this relationship disappeared when intelligence quotient was partialled out. These results suggest that BPD is associated with emotion understanding deficits, whereas temporary severity of BPD is associated with emotion regulation deficits.

A short-term testing effect in cross-language recognition.

Taking a memory test after an initial study phase produces better long-term retention than restudying the items, a phenomenon known as the testing effect. We propose that this effect emerges because testing strengthens semantic features of items' memory traces, whereas restudying strengthens surface features of items' memory traces. This novel account predicts that a testing effect should be observed even after a short retention interval when a language switch occurs between the learning phase and the final test phase. We assessed this prediction with Dutch-English bilinguals who learned Dutch Deese-Roediger-McDermott word lists through restudying or through testing (retrieval practice). Five minutes after this learning phase, they took a recognition test in Dutch (within-language condition) or in English (across-language condition). We observed a testing effect in the across-language condition, but not in the within-language condition. These findings corroborate our novel account of the testing effect.

Comparing the effects of testing and restudying on recollection in recognition memory.

Recently, Chan and McDermott (2007) found that relative to studying words once, taking an initial test increased recollection, whereas it did not affect familiarity. However, an open question remains what the effect is of testing on recollection and familiarity relative to restudying. We conducted four experiments to address this question. Experiment 1 was a replication of Chan and McDermott's third experiment. In Experiment 2, restudied words were compared with tested words. In Experiment 3 we replicated Experiment 2 with the exception that feedback was provided after each initial-test trial. Finally, in Experiment 4, stronger cues were used during the initial test without feedback. The results showed a recollection advantage of testing over restudying, but only when feedback was given during the test or when stronger cues were employed. Further, recognition decisions were more familiarity based for restudied words than for tested words.

Level of activity and participation in adults with spastic diplegia 17-26 years after selective dorsal rhizotomy.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the activity and participation levels of adults with spastic diplegia 17-26 years after selective dorsal rhizotomy; to investigate relationships between subjects' functioning and age, socio-economic-status, level of satisfaction and their perceptions of the post-operative outcomes. DESIGN: Observational follow-up study. PATIENTS: Thirty-one subjects with spastic diplegia, age range 21-44 years, who underwent selective dorsal rhizotomy between 1981 and 1991. METHODS: A semi-structured interview was used to gather data on patients' characteristics and long-term experiences after the operation. The Functional Mobility Scale and Life-Habit questionnaire were completed. RESULTS: Based on the Functional Mobility Scale 84% of subjects were reported as independent for a distance of 5 m, and 61% for 50 and 500 m. Eighty percent were independent in accomplishing all life habits, with most problems found for Mobility and Recreation. This was in agreement with the subjects' perception, with strong correlations between Life-Habit questionnaire accomplishment and satisfaction levels. No significant associations were found between functioning and age at selective dorsal rhizotomy, current age and socio-economic status. CONCLUSION: More than 15 years after selective dorsal rhizotomy, adults with spastic diplegia showed high levels of functioning, and similar levels of satisfaction with life habits. The majority had positive feelings about the neurosurgical procedure, although there is a need for better follow-up after subjects leave school.

Latent variable modeling of cognitive processes in true and false recognition of words: A developmental perspective.

The present study aimed at testing theoretical predictions of the fuzzy-trace theory about true and false recognition. The effects of semantic relatedness and study opportunity on true and false recognition of words from Deese, Roediger, McDermott lists (J. Deese, 1959; D. R. Read, 1996; H. L. Roediger & K. B. McDermott, 1995) were evaluated in 7- to 12-year-old children (N = 151). Instead of a traditional analysis of variance, the authors used a relatively novel statistical analysis technique, latent class factor analysis, to test the hypotheses pertaining to the effect of semantic relatedness and study opportunity on children's true and false recognition given their low or high verbatim-trace and gist-trace level. The results showed that variation in true recognition of target words from semantically related and unrelated word lists that were either studied once or repeated could be explained well by variation in verbatim-trace and gist-trace level. Variation in false recognition of semantically related distractors also could be explained by variation in gist-trace level, but the recollection-rejection hypothesis was not confirmed. The variable age was positively but weakly related to gist-trace level, but no significant relationship was found between age and verbatim-trace level.

Rehearsal strategies can enlarge or diminish the spacing effect: pure versus mixed lists and encoding strategy.

Using 5 experiments, the authors explored the dependency of spacing effects on rehearsal patterns. Encouraging rehearsal borrowing produced opposing effects on mixed lists (containing both spaced and massed repetitions) and pure lists (containing only one or the other), magnifying spacing effects on mixed lists but diminishing spacing effects on pure lists. Rehearsing with borrowing produced large spacing effects on mixed lists but not on pure lists for both free recall (Experiment 1) and recognition (Experiment 2). In contrast, rehearsing only the currently visible item produced spacing effects on both mixed lists and pure lists in free recall (Experiment 3) and recognition (Experiment 4). Experiment 5 demonstrated these effects using a fully within-subjects design. Rehearse-aloud protocols showed that rehearsal borrowing redistributed study from massed to spaced items on mixed lists, especially during massed presentations.