Recent Advances in Targeting Transition Metals (Copper, Iron, and Zinc) in Alzheimer's Disease.

Changes in the transition metal homeostasis in the brain are closely linked with Alzheimer's disease (AD), including intraneuronal iron accumulation and extracellular copper and zinc pooling in the amyloid plague. The brain copper, zinc, and iron surplus are commonly acknowledged characteristics of AD, despite disagreements among some. This has led to the theory that oxidative stress resulting from abnormal homeostasis of these transition metals may be a causative explanation behind AD. In the nervous system, the interaction of metals with proteins appears to be an essential variable in the development or suppression of neurodegeneration. Chelation treatment may be an option for treating neurodegeneration induced by transition metal ion dyshomeostasis. Some clinicians even recommend using chelating agents as an adjunct therapy for AD. The current review also looks at the therapeutic strategies that have been attempted, primarily with metal-chelating drugs. Metal buildup in the nervous system, as reported in the AD, could be the result of compensatory mechanisms designed to improve metal availability for physiological functions.

Self-actuating inflammation responsive hydrogel microsphere formulation for controlled drug release in rheumatoid arthritis (RA): Animal trials and study in human fibroblast like synoviocytes (hFLS) of RA patients.

Patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) often have one or more painfuljoints despite adequate medicine. Local drug delivery to the synovial cavity bids for high drug concentration with minimal systemic adverse effects. However, anti-RA drugs show short half-lives in inflamed joints after intra-articular delivery. To improve the therapeutic efficacy, it is essential to ensure that a drug is only released from the formulation when it is needed. In this work, we developed an intelligent "Self-actuating" drug delivery system where Disease-modifying anti-rheumatic Drug (DMARD) methotrexate is incorporated within a matrix intended to be injected directly into joints. This formulation has the property to sense the need and release medication only when joints are inflamed in response to inflammatory enzyme Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP). These enzymes are important proteases in RA pathology, and several MMP are present in augmented levels in synovial fluid and tissues. A high level of MMP present in synovial tissues of RA patients would facilitate the release of drugs in response and ascertain controlled drug release. The formulation is designed to be stable within the joint environment, but to dis-assemble in response to inflammation. The synthesized enzyme-responsive methotrexate (Mtx) encapsulated micron-sized polymer-lipid hybrid hydrogel microspheres (Mtx-PLHM) was physiochemically characterized and tested in synovial fluid, Human Fibroblast like synoviocytes (h-FLS) (derived from RA patients) and a rat arthritic animal model. Mtx-PLHM can self-actuate and augment the release of Mtx drug upon contact with either exogenously added MMP or endogenous MMP present in the synovial fluid of patients with RA. The drug release from the prepared formulation is significantly amplified to several folds in the presence of MMP-2 and MMP-9 enzymes. In the rat arthritic model, Mtx-PLHM showed promising therapeutic results with the significant alleviation of RA symptoms through decrease in joint inflammation, swelling, bone erosion, and joint damage examined by X-ray analysis, histopathology and immune-histology. This drug delivery system would be nontoxic as it releases more drug only during the period of exacerbation of inflammation. This will simultaneously protect patients from unwanted side effects when the disease is inactive and lower the need for repeated joint injections.

Mitochondrial morphology dynamics and ROS regulate apical polarity and differentiation in Drosophila follicle cells.

Mitochondrial morphology dynamics regulate signaling pathways during epithelial cell formation and differentiation. The mitochondrial fission protein Drp1 affects the appropriate activation of EGFR and Notch signaling-driven differentiation of posterior follicle cells in Drosophila oogenesis. The mechanisms by which Drp1 regulates epithelial polarity during differentiation are not known. In this study, we show that Drp1-depleted follicle cells are constricted in early stages and present in multiple layers at later stages with decreased levels of apical polarity protein aPKC. These defects are suppressed by additional depletion of mitochondrial fusion protein Opa1. Opa1 depletion leads to mitochondrial fragmentation and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) in follicle cells. We find that increasing ROS by depleting the ROS scavengers, mitochondrial SOD2 and catalase also leads to mitochondrial fragmentation. Further, the loss of Opa1, SOD2 and catalase partially restores the defects in epithelial polarity and aPKC, along with EGFR and Notch signaling in Drp1-depleted follicle cells. Our results show a crucial interaction between mitochondrial morphology, ROS generation and epithelial cell polarity formation during the differentiation of follicle epithelial cells in Drosophila oogenesis.

Clofazimine nanoclusters show high efficacy in experimental TB with amelioration in paradoxical lung inflammation.

The rise of tuberculosis (TB) superbugs has impeded efforts to control this infectious ailment, and new treatment options are few. Paradoxical Inflammation (PI) is another major problem associated with current anti-TB therapy, which can complicate the treatment and leads to clinical worsening of disease despite a decrease in bacterial burden in the lungs. TB infection is generally accompanied by an intense local inflammatory response which may be critical to TB pathogenesis. Clofazimine (CLF), a second-line anti-TB drug, delineated potential anti-mycobacterial effects in-vitro and in-vivo and also demonstrated anti-inflammatory potential in in-vitro experiments. However, clinical implications may be restricted owing to poor solubility and low bioavailability rendering a suboptimal drug concentration in the target organ. To unravel these issues, nanocrystals of CLF (CLF-NC) were prepared using a microfluidizer® technology, which was further processed into micro-sized CLF nano-clusters (CLF-NCLs) by spray drying technique. This particle engineering offers combined advantages of micron- and nano-scale particles where micron-size (∼5 µm) promise optimum aerodynamic parameters for the finest lung deposition, and nano-scale dimensions (∼600 nm) improve the dissolution profile of apparently insoluble clofazimine. An inhalable formulation was evaluated against virulent mycobacterium tuberculosis in in-vitro studies and in mice infected with aerosol TB infection. CLF-NCLs resulted in the significant killing of virulent TB bacteria with a MIC value of ∼0.62 µg/mL, as demonstrated by Resazurin microtiter assay (REMA). In TB-infected mice, inhaled doses of CLF-NCLs equivalent to ∼300 µg and âˆ¼ 600 µg of CLF administered on every alternate day over 30 days significantly reduced the number of bacteria in the lung. With an inhaled dose of ∼600 µg/mice, reduction of mycobacterial colony forming units (CFU) was achieved by ∼1.95 Log10CFU times compared to CLF administered via oral gavage (∼1.18 Log10CFU). Lung histology scoring showed improved pathogenesis and inflammation in infected animals after 30 days of inhalation dosing of CLF-NCLs. The levels of pro-inflammatory mediators, including cytokines, TNF-α & IL-6, and MMP-2 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BAL-F) and lung tissue homogenates, were attenuated after inhalation treatment. These pre-clinical data suggest inhalable CLF-NCLs are well tolerated, show significant anti-TB activity and apparently able to tackle the challenge of paradoxical chronic lung inflammation in murine TB model.

Mapping of QTLs associated with yield and related traits under reproductive stage drought stress in rice using SNP linkage map.

BACKGROUND: Drought stress is a major constraint for rice production worldwide. Reproductive stage drought stress (RSDS) leads to heavy yield losses in rice. The prospecting of new donor cultivars for identification and introgression of QTLs of major effect (Quantitative trait locus) for drought tolerance is crucial for the development of drought-resilient rice varieties. METHODS AND RESULTS: Our study aimed to map QTLs associated with yield and its related traits under RSDS conditions. A saturated linkage map was constructed using 3417 GBS (Genotyping by sequencing) derived SNP (Single nucleotide polymorphism) markers spanning 1924.136 cM map length with an average marker density of 0.56 cM, in the F3 mapping population raised via cross made between the traditional ahu rice cultivar, Koniahu (drought tolerant) and a high-yielding variety, Disang (drought susceptible). Using the Inclusive composite interval mapping approach, 35 genomic regions governing yield and related traits were identified in pooled data from 198 F3 and F4 segregating lines evaluated for two consecutive seasons under both RSDS and irrigated control conditions. Of the 35 QTLs, 23 QTLs were identified under RSDS with LOD (Logarithm of odds) values ranging between 2.50 and 7.83 and PVE (phenotypic variance explained) values of 2.95-12.42%. Two major QTLs were found to be linked to plant height (qPH1.29) and number of filled grains per panicle (qNOG5.12) under RSDS. Five putative QTLs for grain yield namely, qGY2.00, qGY5.05, qGY6.16, qGY9.19, and qGY10.20 were identified within drought conditions. Fourteen QTL regions having ≤ 10 Mb QTL interval size were further analysed for candidate gene identification and a total of 4146 genes were detected out of these 2263 (54.63%) genes were annotated to at least one gene ontology (GO) term. CONCLUSION: Several QTLs associated with grain yield and yield components and putative candidate genes were identified. The putative QTLs and candidate genes identified could be employed to augment drought resilience in rice after further validation through MAS strategies.

New Generation Smart Drug Delivery Systems for Rheumatoid Arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is the most common form of the chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease characterized by chronic synovitis, synovial proliferation, and cellular infiltration. Further, it leads to bone erosion, destruction of articular cartilage, intense joint pain, swelling, and a high rate of disability, causing an immense load on human health. If the disease is identified early on, and the patient has continuous and timely treatment, many patients can achieve remission. Although research in RA has made considerable progress, conventional therapies are still the most popular treatment options for most people with RA. But, conventional therapies are hampered by various drawbacks, including higher doses, low solubility and permeability, poor bioavailability, a high level of first-pass metabolism, adaptive treatment tolerance (ATT), and long-term drug use. These drawbacks can result in severe side effects and drug toxicity in patients. Advances in polymer science and the application of nanotechnology in drug delivery systems have provided new possibilities in the treatment of RA by developing new-generation smart drug delivery systems (SDDSs). The shortcomings of non-specific drug distribution and uncontrollable drug release by traditional delivery systems have motivated the creation of next-generation SDDSs. These new smart drug delivery treatment methods have significantly changed the course of RA. Such systems can improve drug delivery by virtue of their multi-functionality and targeting capabilities. The ultimate objective of next-generation SDDSs is to deliver medication at the optimal time with precise dosage and efficiency and specificity to the targeted site (such as cells, tissues, and organs), which can aid patients to adhere better to their therapy. This review highlights and discusses the various next-generation SDDSs along with the conventional treatment options available for RA management.

Fat fighting liraglutide based nano-formulation to reverse obesity: Design, development and animal trials.

Obesity is a metabolic disease, which is one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality, where therapeutic options are limited. Treatment of obesity is necessary as it is associated with fatal complications like diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, osteoarthritis, and many more. Liraglutide (Lir), a synthetic analogue of Glucagon-like Peptide-1 (GLP-1), is the FDA approved anti-obesity drug, however, its major limitation is its clinical application which needs frequent parenteral injections. To address the issue of regular injection, we have synthesized a fat fighting oral nano-formulation of liraglutide with a sustained release feature, which was evaluated against high fat diet (HFD) induced obesity in mice. Experimental obesity was induced in mice by feeding HFD for 26 weeks. Lir nanoparticles (NP) were fabricated with chitosan via ion-gelation technique and were coated with Eudragit@S100 to protect the drug in harsh gastric conditions. Physiochemical characterization of Eu-Lir-Cs-NP demonstrated a small particle size of 253.1 ± 1.21 nm with âˆ¼ 9.74 % loading and âˆ¼ 72.11 % encapsulation efficiency of the drug. In-vitro studies showed successful cellular uptake of NP in Caco-2 cells and were stable in various enteric fluid pH conditions. Eudragit@S100 coated chitosan NP were able to protect the drug from harsh gastric pH conditions with more than âˆ¼ 74% of recovery. Treatment of two weeks of liraglutide Eu-Lir-Cs-NP (0.1, 0.2 and 0.4 mg/kg, orally; twice daily) moderately reduces obesity in mice as evidenced by a reduction in the body weight, blood glucose, serum total cholesterol, serum triglyceride, serum resistin and serum insulin level of mice. In addition, significant reduction of liver weight, abdominal white adipose tissue, and hepatic oxidative stress were noted. Our results suggest that chitosan-based NP of liraglutide can be an effective and convenient formulation for the management of obesity.

Molecular mapping of drought-responsive QTLs during the reproductive stage of rice using a GBS (genotyping-by-sequencing) based SNP linkage map.

BACKGROUND: In rice, drought stress at reproductive stage drastically reduces yield, which in turn hampers farmer's efforts towards crop production. The majority of the rice varieties have resistance genes against several abiotic and biotic stresses. Therefore, the traditional landraces were studied to identify QTLs/candidate genes associated with drought tolerance. METHODS AND RESULTS: A high-density SNP-based genetic map was constructed using a Genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) approach. The recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from crossing 'Banglami × Ranjit' were used for QTL analysis. A total map length of 1306.424 cM was constructed, which had an average inter-marker distance of 0.281 cM. The phenotypic evaluation of F6 and F7 RILs were performed under drought stress and control conditions. A total of 42 QTLs were identified under drought stress and control conditions for yield component traits explaining 1.95-13.36% of the total phenotypic variance (PVE). Among these, 19 QTLs were identified under drought stress conditions, whereas 23 QTLs were located under control conditions. A total of 4 QTLs explained a PVE ≥ 10% which are considered as the major QTLs. Moreover, bioinformatics analysis revealed the presence of 6 candidate genes, which showed differential expression under drought and control conditions. CONCLUSION: These QTLs/genes may be deployed for marker-assisted pyramiding to improve drought tolerance in the existing rice varieties.

Pain Allaying Epalrestat-Loaded Lipid Nanoformulation for the Diabetic Neuropathic Pain Interventions: Design, Development, and Animal Study.

BACKGROUND: Diabetic peripheral neuropathy is the most common complication of diabetes mellitus. Epalrestat, an aldose reductase inhibitor, has been approved for clinical therapy for diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain. In the present study, solid lipid-based nanoparticles are used for oral administration of epalrestat (E-SLN) and evaluated against diabetic neuropathic pain in a rat model. METHODS: Experimental diabetes in rats was induced by a single dose of streptozotocin (STZ) administration. The therapeutic efficiency of Epalrestat nanoparticles (0.25, 0.50, 1, and 5 mg/kg) in diabetic rats was studied. STZinduced diabetic rats were treated with different doses of E-SLN for 8 weeks. The nanoparticles were orally administered at a single dose in rats, and the various parameters related to peripheral neuropathy were evaluated and compared with the bare drug. The blood glucose level was estimated by standard glucometer, HbA1c, triglycerides, total cholesterol, and liver function test (ALT and AST) were analyzed by blood samples collected from retro-orbital plexus. Oxidative stress markers and Na+K+ATPase, TNF-α, and IL-1ß levels were measured in the homogenate of sciatic nerves. Behavioral tests were also performed by the hot plate method and tail-flick method. RESULTS: E-SLN synthesized by the micro-emulsification method was 281 ± 60 nm in size, and encapsulation efficacy was found to be 88 ± 2%. Optimized E-SLN were characterized and found to be optimum in size, spherical shape, decent encapsulation efficiency, stable at acidic gastric pH, and suitable for oral delivery. E-SLNs did not significantly reverse the STZ-induced elevated blood glucose level (FBS and PPBS), HbA1c, triglycerides, and total cholesterol but significantly improved TNF-α, IL-1ß, and increased Na+K+ATPase levels, oxidative stress marker and ALT, AST in the treated rat group as compared with the diabetic group. Doses of E-SLN, i.e. 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, and 5 mg/kg, significantly increased the tail-flick latency time and hot plate response time in a dose-dependent manner compared with the diabetic group. CONCLUSION: Thus, it is suggested that E-SLN were equally effective and less hepatotoxic compared with the standard treatment of epalrestat. To the best of our knowledge, we, for the first time, propose the orally deliverable E-SLN that ameliorates STZ-induced diabetes neuropathic pain effectively as compared with conventional epalrestat.

Taming the Devil: Antimicrobial Peptides for Safer TB Therapeutics.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a highly contagious infection with extensive mortality and morbidity. The rise of TB-superbugs (drug-resistant strains) with the increase of their resistance to conventional antibiotics has prompted a further search for new anti-mycobacterial agents. It is difficult to breach the barriers around TB bacteria, including mycolic cell wall, granuloma, biofilm and mucus, by conventional antibiotics in a short span of time. Hence, there is an essential need for molecules with an unconventional mode of action and structure that can efficiently break the barriers around mycobacterium. Antimicrobial peptides (AMP) are essential components of innate immunity having cationic and amphipathic characteristics. Lines of evidence show that AMPs have good myco-bactericidal and antibiofilm activity against normal as well as antibiotic-resistant TB bacteria. These peptides have shown direct killing of bacteria by membrane lysis and indirect killing by activation of innate immune response in host cells by interacting with the component of the bacterial membrane and intracellular targets through diverse mechanisms. Despite a good anti-mycobacterial activity, some undesirable characteristics are also associated with AMP, including hemolysis, cytotoxicity, susceptibility to proteolysis and poor pharmacokinetic profile, and hence only a few clinical studies have been conducted with these biomolecules. The design of new combinatorial therapies, including AMPs and particulate drug delivery systems, could be new potential alternatives to conventional antibiotics to fight MDR- and XDRTB. This review outlined the array of AMP roles in TB therapy, possible mechanisms of actions, activities, and current advances in pragmatic strategies to improve challenges accompanying the delivery of AMP for tuberculosis therapeutics.

Mitochondrial fusion regulates proliferation and differentiation in the type II neuroblast lineage in Drosophila.

Optimal mitochondrial function determined by mitochondrial dynamics, morphology and activity is coupled to stem cell differentiation and organism development. However, the mechanisms of interaction of signaling pathways with mitochondrial morphology and activity are not completely understood. We assessed the role of mitochondrial fusion and fission in the differentiation of neural stem cells called neuroblasts (NB) in the Drosophila brain. Depleting mitochondrial inner membrane fusion protein Opa1 and mitochondrial outer membrane fusion protein Marf in the Drosophila type II NB lineage led to mitochondrial fragmentation and loss of activity. Opa1 and Marf depletion did not affect the numbers of type II NBs but led to a decrease in differentiated progeny. Opa1 depletion decreased the mature intermediate precursor cells (INPs), ganglion mother cells (GMCs) and neurons by the decreased proliferation of the type II NBs and mature INPs. Marf depletion led to a decrease in neurons by a depletion of proliferation of GMCs. On the contrary, loss of mitochondrial fission protein Drp1 led to mitochondrial clustering but did not show defects in differentiation. Depletion of Drp1 along with Opa1 or Marf also led to mitochondrial clustering and suppressed the loss of mitochondrial activity and defects in proliferation and differentiation in the type II NB lineage. Opa1 depletion led to decreased Notch signaling in the type II NB lineage. Further, Notch signaling depletion via the canonical pathway showed mitochondrial fragmentation and loss of differentiation similar to Opa1 depletion. An increase in Notch signaling showed mitochondrial clustering similar to Drp1 mutants. Further, Drp1 mutant overexpression combined with Notch depletion showed mitochondrial fusion and drove differentiation in the lineage, suggesting that fused mitochondria can influence differentiation in the type II NB lineage. Our results implicate crosstalk between proliferation, Notch signaling, mitochondrial activity and fusion as an essential step in differentiation in the type II NB lineage.

Antimicrobial activity of synthetic antimicrobial peptides loaded in poly-Ɛ-caprolactone nanoparticles against mycobacteria and their functional synergy with rifampicin.

Tuberculosis (TB) treatment has become a challenge because of the natural presence of multilayered cell wall rich in lipids which restrict antibiotic permeability within the bacteria. The development of mutations conferring resistance has aggravated the situation. Consequently, maximum pharmaceutical efforts are required to improve the treatment, and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with antimycobacterial activity can be exploited as a new treatment strategy against TB. The synergistic interaction between conventional antibiotics and AMPs has broadened its application landscape. To overcome peptide instability and bioavailability issues, encapsulation of these bioactive in biocompatible polymers was adopted. In this study, the effect of synthetic AMPs HHC-8 [KIWWWWRKR] and MM-10 [MLLKKLLKKM] encapsulated in poly (ε-caprolactone) nanoparticles (PCL-NPs) was evaluated against mycobacteria using REMA (Resazurin Microtiter Assay Plate) technique. PCL encapsulation allowed us to load the required amount of peptides, i.e. HHC-8 and MM-10, with an efficiency of âˆ¼ 18.9 ± 5.24 and âˆ¼ 21.1 ± 6.19 % respectively, and sphere size was around 376.5 ± 14.9 nm and 289.87 ± 17.98 nm for PCL-HHC-8-NPs and PCL-MM-10-NPs, respectively. Minimal degradation and sustained release of peptides from nanoparticles improved antimicrobial activity, decreasing the MIC50 from 75 µg/ml to 18.75 µg/ml against M. smegmatis and from 75 µg/ml to 9 µg/ml against M. tuberculosis, respectively. The combinatorial MIC assays of encapsulated AMP with rifampicin antibiotics against M. smegmatis showed synergism between AMP-PCL-NPs and antibiotics with fractional inhibitory concentrations (FICs) around âˆ¼ 0.09. The combinations of AMP NPs also demonstrated synergy against the mycobacteria. Our findings suggest that enhanced efficacy is due to protection offered by AMPs encapsulation resulting in augmentation of membrane permeation by AMPs and enhanced accumulation of antibiotics within mycobacteria resulting in synergy. The study findings might assist in the preclinical development of AMP for the fight against TB.

Efficient, enzyme responsive and tumor receptor targeting gelatin nanoparticles decorated with concanavalin-A for site-specific and controlled drug delivery for cancer therapy.

The tumor targeting and stimuli responsiveness behavior of intelligent drug delivery systems imparts effective therapeutic delivery and decreases the toxicity of conventional chemotherapeutic agents in off-target organs. To achieve the receptor targeting and smart drug release, several strategies have been employed to engineer nano-carrier with stimulus sensitivity. In this work, mannose receptor-targeted and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) responsive gelatin nanoparticles were developed and assessed for its receptor targeting and "on-demand" controlled drug delivery in lung cancer therapeutics. MMPs are protease enzymes and over-expressed in tumorous tissues in all the stages of cancer. The cancer cells also have over-expressed mannose receptors on the cell surface. The surface decoration of gelatin nanoparticles with concanavalin A (con-A) tends to bind with mannose moiety of cell surface glycoproteins which enhances the cancer cell-specific higher uptake of nanoparticles. Gelatin nanoparticles have attracted significant attraction in recent years as a potential drug carrier because of its good biocompatibility and versatile physicochemical properties desirable to deliver the drug. Cisplatin was complexed with the gelatin matrix (CG-NP) to evaluate stimuli responsiveness with the lung cancer cells and its release pattern. In this smart inhalable delivery system, cisplatin loaded gelatin nanoparticles were surface decorated with con-A (CCG-NP). In tumorous cells, con-A coating is expected to enhance mannose receptor-specific cellular internalization of CCG-NP, and subsequently high level of MMP in tumor tissues would help to release cisplatin in response and ensures controlled drug release. The synthesized CCG-NP has shown enzyme triggered drug release and favorable endocytosis after incubation of 12 h compare to uncoated nanoparticles. The efficacy of CCG-NP significantly increased in presence of MMP-2 enzyme in lung cancer cell line A549 cells. It also significantly enhanced reactive oxygen species generation, cell cycle arrest in S and G2/M phase, and apoptosis in cancer cells. Therefore, inhalable CCG-NP promises a pragmatic approach to construct a receptor targeting and an "on-demand" drug delivery system to efficiently deliver the drug at the tumor site only.

Enema based therapy using liposomal formulation of low molecular weight heparin for treatment of active ulcerative colitis: New adjunct therapeutic opportunity.

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is an idiopathic bowel disease involving chronic inflammation and ulcers in colon and implicates severe epithelial damage with disruption in colon homeostasis. Presently existing treatments possess serious concerns like off target effects and adverse reactions, drug inactivation, poor absorption and other complications resulting in poor bioavailability. In context of high risk of thrombotic events in UC patients, heparin can offer appreciable benefits in UC management due to its remarkable anti-coagulating properties, its ability to intervene inflammatory pathways and acceleration of wound healing process. However, oral administration of heparin being impractical due to harsh gastric acidic environment and heparin degradation, conventional heparin administration is done via intravenous route. Present study was designed to formulate, characterize and evaluate sustained release heparin formulation in mice model of experimental colitis. Heparin liposomes (HLp) were formulated by solvent evaporation and extrusion process and possessed hydrodynamic diameter of 242 ± 4.3 nm. Size, shape and surface morphology was confirmed by TEM, SEM and AFM micrographs while encapsulation efficiency and loading of heparin in optimized HLp were 59.61% and 12.27%, respectively. HLp enema administration ameliorated gross disease indices like body weight, colon length, stool consistency, fecal occult blood. Further, anti-inflammatory efficacy of HLp was established in histopathological analysis where HLp appreciably restored protective mucin layer, colon epithelial mucosal histoarchitecture and considerably attenuated mast cell infiltration in colon epithelia. Overall, results of this study indicate that HLp demonstrated an appreciable therapeutic efficacy in experimental colitis and these results are attributed to their ability to suppress inflammation.

Impact of modular mitochondrial epistatic interactions on the evolution of human subpopulations.

Investigation of human mitochondrial (mt) genome variation has been shown to provide insights to the human history and natural selection. By analyzing 24,167 human mt-genome samples, collected for five continents, we have developed a co-mutation network model to investigate characteristic human evolutionary patterns. The analysis highlighted richer co-mutating regions of the mt-genome, suggesting the presence of epistasis. Specifically, a large portion of COX genes was found to co-mutate in Asian and American populations, whereas, in African, European, and Oceanic populations, there was greater co-mutation bias in hypervariable regions. Interestingly, this study demonstrated hierarchical modularity as a crucial agent for these co-mutation networks. More profoundly, our ancestry-based co-mutation module analyses showed that mutations cluster preferentially in known mitochondrial haplogroups. Contemporary human mt-genome nucleotides most closely resembled the ancestral state, and very few of them were found to be ancestral-variants. Overall, these results demonstrated that subpopulation-based biases may favor mitochondrial gene specific epistasis.

Enteric-coated gelatin nanoparticles mediated oral delivery of 5-aminosalicylic acid alleviates severity of DSS-induced ulcerative colitis.

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is an inflammatory condition involving ulcers in colon and rectum. Conventional treatments for colitis confront serious limitations like off target systemic side effects, drug degradation and inactivation, restricted absorption and other complications culminating in poor bioavailability. These limitations necessitate localized drug delivery to inflamed colon such that drug can bypass abrasive gastric surroundings, availing protection form gastric acid and has selective access to colonic mucosa. Therefore, present study was designed to formulate Eudragit-S100 coated 5-amino salicylic acid (5-ASA)-loaded gelatin nanoparticles (NPs) for localized delivery of 5-ASA for treatment of ulcerative colitis. NPs were formulated by nanoprecipitation and solvent evaporation method, had hydrodynamic diameter of 225-250 nm, smooth and spherical surface morphology under TEM, SEM and AFM. Oral administration of NPs ameliorated disease activity indices like fecal occult bleeding, colon length and stool consistency. NPs treatment significantly reduced mast cells infiltration in colon, restored protective mucin layer and appreciably reinstated colonic histoarchitecture. Furthermore, inflammatory biomarkers like TNF-α, IL1-ß, COX-2, iNOS, myeloperoxidase and nitrite levels were also significantly reduced by NPs treatment. Overall, results of this study indicate that 5-ASA NPs possessed superior therapeutic efficacy over free 5-ASA in experimental colitis and these results are attributed to their ability to significantly suppress inflammation.

Aminocellulose-Grafted Polymeric Nanoparticles for Selective Targeting of CHEK2-Deficient Colorectal Cancer.

We report the formulation of aminocellulose-grafted polymeric nanoparticles containing LCS-1 for synthetic lethal targeting of checkpoint kinase 2 (CHEK2)-deficient HCT116 colon cancer (CRC) cells to surpass the limitations associated with the solubility of LCS-1 (a superoxide dismutase inhibitor). Aminocellulose (AC), a highly biocompatible and biodegradable hydrophilic polymer, was grafted over polycaprolactone (PCL), and a nanoprecipitation method was employed for formulating nanoparticles containing LCS-1. In this study, we exploited the synthetic lethal interaction between SOD1 and CHEK2 for the specific inhibition of CHEK2-deficient HCT116 CRC cells using LCS-1-loaded PCL-AC NPs. Furthermore, the effects of formation of protein corona on PCL-AC nanoparticles were also assessed in terms of size, cellular uptake, and cell viability. LCS-1-loaded NPs were evaluated for their size, zeta potential, and polydispersity index using a zetasizer, and their morphological characteristics were assessed by transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy analyses. Cellular internalization using confocal microscopy exhibited that nanoparticles were uptaken by HCT116 cells. Also, nanoparticles were cytocompatible as they did not induce cytotoxicity in hTERT and HEK-293 cells. The LCS-1-loaded PCL-AC NPs were quite hemocompatible and were 240 times more selective in killing CHEK2-deficient cells as compared to CHEK2-proficient CRC cells. Moreover, PCL-AC NPs exhibited that the protein corona-coated nanoparticles were incubated in the human and fetal bovine sera as visualized by SDS-PAGE. A slight increment in hydrodynamic diameter was observed for corona-coated PCL-AC nanoparticles, and size increment was further confirmed by TEM. Corona-coated PCL-AC NPs also exhibited cellular uptake as demonstrated by flow cytometric analysis and did not cause cytotoxic effects on hTERT cells. The nanoformulation was developed to enhance therapeutic potential of the drug LCS-1 for enhanced lethality of colorectal cancer cells with CHEK2 deficiency.

Autophagy-Inducing Inhalable Co-crystal Formulation of Niclosamide-Nicotinamide for Lung Cancer Therapy.

Niclosamide (NIC), an anthelminthic drug, is found to be promising in overcoming the problem of various types of drug-resistant cancer. In spite of strong anti-proliferative effect, NIC shows low aqueous solubility, leading to poor bioavailability. To overcome this limitation, and enhance its physicochemical properties and pharmacokinetic profile, we used co-crystallization technique as a promising strategy. In this work, we brought together the crystal and particle engineering at a time using spray drying to enhance physicochemical and aerodynamic properties of co-crystal particle for inhalation purpose. We investigated the formation and evaluation of pharmaceutical co-crystals of niclosamide-nicotinamide (NIC-NCT) prepared by rapid, continuous and scalable spray drying method and compared with conventional solvent evaporation technique. The newly formed co-crystal was evaluated by XRPD, FTIR, Raman spectroscopy and DSC, which showed an indication of formation of H bonds between drug (NIC) and co-former (NCT) as a major binding force in co-crystal development. The particle geometry of co-crystals including spherical shape, size 1-5 µm and aerodynamic properties (ED, 97.1 ± 8.9%; MMAD, 3.61 ± 0.87 µm; FPF, 71.74 ± 6.9% and GSD 1.46) attributes suitable for inhalation. For spray-dried co-crystal systems, an improvement in solubility characteristics (≥ 14.8-fold) was observed, relative to pure drug. To investigate the anti-proliferative activity, NIC-NCT co-crystals were investigated on A549 human lung adenomas cells, which showed a superior cytotoxic activity compared with pure drug. Mechanistically, NIC-NCT co-crystals enhanced autophagic flux in cancer cell which demonstrates autophagy-mediated cell death as shown by confocal microscopy. This technique could help in improving bioavailability of drug, hence reducing the need for high dosages and signifying a novel paradigm for future clinical applications.

Dynamic mucus penetrating microspheres for efficient pulmonary delivery and enhanced efficacy of host defence peptide (HDP) in experimental tuberculosis.

Pulmonary drug delivery system is increasingly gaining popularity for several lung diseases including tuberculosis(TB) due to its ability to attain high drug concentrations at the site of infection and to minimize systemic toxicity. In TB therapy, the efficacy of the antibiotics decreases and bacteria becomes resistant in course of time due to the formation of several barriers like lung-mucus and biofilms around the microorganism. The conventional inhalable microparticles(MP) are majorly trapped in dense mucin mess network and quickly cleared by mucocilliary clearance. In this study, we determined whether the anti-TB activity of drug-loaded inhalable polymeric microparticles could be synergized with the mucus-penetrating and biofilm disrupting properties. Mucus-penetrating-microparticles(NAC/PLGA-MPP) were developed combining the benefits of anti-TB drug with host defence peptides(HDP). IDR-1018 peptide was encapsulated with/without an anti-TB drug in N-acetyl cysteine(NAC) decorated porous PLGA microspheres. Aerodynamic parameters(MMAD-3.79 ± 1.04 µm, FPF-52.9 ± 5.11%) were optimized for the finest deposition and targeting inside the lungs. The multiple-tracking-technique(MPT) results indicate that the coating of NAC on porous PLGA-MS dramatically increased (4.1fold) the particle transit through the mucus barrier. Designed inhalable NAC/PLGA-MPP do not adhere to lung mucus, disrupt the bacterial biofilm and provide uniform drug delivery to lungs after pulmonary delivery. The formulation was evaluated for activity against M.tb in macrophage cultures and in mice model infected with a low-dose bacterial (~100 CFU) aerosol. The inhalation of NAC/PLGA-MPP encapsulated with IDR-1018 significantly reduced (p < .05) bacterial load (up to ~3.02LogCFU/ml) and inflammation in lungs in a mouse model of TB compared to untreated and blank treated animals in 6 weeks of daily dose. The histopathological results validate the compelling chemotherapeutic outcome of inhaled formulations. This data supports the harnessing potential of mucus penetrating inhalable drug delivery systems as a vehicle for targeted lung delivery. This "value-added" inhalable formulation could be beneficial for resistant TB therapeutics when used as an "adjunct" to existing DOTS (Directly observed treatment, short-course) therapy.

Inhalation Delivery of Host Defense Peptides (HDP) using Nano- Formulation Strategies: A Pragmatic Approach for Therapy of Pulmonary Ailments.

Host defense peptides (HDP) are small cationic molecules released by the immune systems of the body, having multidimensional properties including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial and immune-modulatory activity. These molecules gained importance due to their broad-spectrum pharmacological activities, and hence being actively investigated. Presently, respiratory infections represent a major global health problem, and HDP has an enormous potential to be used as an alternative therapeutics against respiratory infections and related inflammatory ailments. Because of their short half-life, protease sensitivity, poor pharmacokinetics, and first-pass metabolism, it is challenging to deliver HDP as such inside the physiological system in a controlled way by conventional delivery systems. Many HDPs are efficacious only at practically high molar-concentrations, which is not convincing for the development of drug regimen due to their intrinsic detrimental effects. To avail the efficacy of HDP in pulmonary diseases, it is essential to deliver an appropriate payload into the targeted site of lungs. Inhalable HDP can be a potentially suitable alternative for various lung disorders including tuberculosis, Cystic fibrosis, Pneumonia, Lung cancer, and others as they are active against resistant microbes and cells and exhibit improved targeting with reduced adverse effects. In this review, we give an overview of the pharmacological efficacy of HDP and deliberate strategies for designing inhalable formulations for enhanced activity and issues related to their clinical implications.