Development and Identification of a Novel Anti-HIV-1 Peptide Derived by Modification of the N-Terminal Domain of HIV-1 Integrase.

The viral enzyme integrase (IN) is essential for the replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and represents an important target for the development of new antiretroviral drugs. In this study, we focused on the N-terminal domain (NTD), which is mainly involved into protein oligomerization process, for the development and synthesis of a library of overlapping peptide sequences, with specific length and specific offset covering the entire native protein sequence NTD IN 1-50. The most potent fragment, VVAKEIVAH (peptide 18), which includes a His residue instead of the natural Ser at position 39, inhibits the HIV-1 IN activity with an IC50 value of 4.5 µM. Amino acid substitution analysis on this peptide revealed essential residues for activity and allowed us to identify two nonapeptides (peptides 24 and 25), that show a potency of inhibition similar to the one of peptide 18. Interestingly, peptide 18 does not interfere with the dynamic interplay between IN subunits, while peptides 24 and 25 modulated these interactions in different manners. In fact, peptide 24 inhibited the IN-IN dimerization, while peptide 25 promoted IN multimerization, with IC50 values of 32 and 4.8 µM, respectively. In addition, peptide 25 has shown to have selective anti-infective cell activity for HIV-1. These results confirmed peptide 25 as a hit for further development of new chemotherapeutic agents against HIV-1.

An optimized Fmoc synthesis of human defensin 5.

Human α-defensin 5 (DEF5), expressed by the Paneth cells of human small intestine, plays an important role in host defense against microbial infections. DEF5, a 32-residue peptide adopting a three-stranded ß-sheet fold stabilized by three internal disulfide bonds, is not efficiently produced by recombinant expression techniques and is, therefore, an interesting goal for chemical synthesis. While DEF5 production by Boc-based solid-phase synthesis has been described, to date no synthetic account by the more convenient Fmoc method has been published. Herein, we report an optimized solid-phase synthesis of DEF5 using the Fmoc strategy. Starting from a rather problematic initial synthesis using standard Wang resin and coupling protocols, the sequence elongation process has been monitored by mini-cleavage and MS analysis at strategic points, to identify problematic spots and act accordingly. For expediency, some of the optimization rounds have been run on defensin 5 amide. Main modifications have included the ChemMatrix(®) resin, known to decrease chain aggregation, and the use of pseudoproline dipeptide units at selected positions. Combination of some of these improvements results in a significantly purer product, to the extent that it can undergo in situ anaerobic oxidative folding to the native form without the need of an intermediate purification step. A typical synthesis run yielded about 15 mg of >95 % pure material. This approach should facilitate production of DEF5 and of selected analogs for structure-activity studies and other applications.

SAR study and conformational analysis of a series of novel peptide G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 inhibitors.

G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) plays a central role in the cellular transduction network. In particular, during chronic heart failure GRK2 is upregulated and believed to contribute to disease progression. Thereby, its inhibition offers a potential therapeutic solution to several pathological conditions. In the present study, we performed a SAR study and a NMR conformational analysis of peptides derived from HJ loop of GRK2 and able to selectively inhibit GRK2. From Ala-scan and D-Ala point replacement, we found that Arg residues don't affect the inhibitory properties, while a D-amino acid at position 5 is key to the activity. Conformational analysis identified two ß-turns that involve N-terminal residues, followed by a short extended region. These information can help the design of peptides and peptido-mimetics with enhanced GRK2 inhibition properties.

Design, synthesis and efficacy of novel G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 inhibitors.

G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) is a relevant signaling node of the cellular transduction network, playing major roles in the physiology of various organs/tissues including the heart and blood vessels. Emerging evidence suggests that GRK2 is up regulated in pathological situations such as heart failure, hypertrophy and hypertension, and its inhibition offers a potential therapeutic solution to these diseases. We explored the GRK2 inhibitory activity of a library of cyclic peptides derived from the HJ loop of G protein-coupled receptor kinases 2 (GRK2). The design of these cyclic compounds was based on the conformation of the HJ loop within the X-ray structure of GRK2. One of these compounds, the cyclic peptide 7, inhibited potently and selectively the GRK2 activity, being more active than its linear precursor. In a cellular system, this peptide confirms the beneficial signaling properties of a potent GRK2 inhibitor. Preferred conformations of the most potent analog were investigated by NMR spectroscopy.

Synthesis, in vitro, and in cell studies of a new series of [indoline-3,2'-thiazolidine]-based p53 modulators.

Analogues of the previously described spiro[imidazo[1,5-c]thiazole-3,3'-indoline]-2',5,7(6H,7aH)-trione p53 modulators were prepared to explore new structural requirements at the thiazolidine domain for the antiproliferative activity and p53 modulation. In cell, antiproliferative activity was evaluated against two human tumor cell lines. Derivative 5-bromo-3'-(cyclohexane carbonyl)-1-methyl-2-oxospiro[indoline-3,2'-thiazolidine] (4n) emerged as the most potent compound of this series, inhibiting in vitro 30% of p53-MDM2 interaction at 5 µM and the cell growth of different human tumor cells at nanomolar concentrations. Docking studies confirmed the interactions of 4n with the well-known Trp23 and Phe19 clefts, explaining the reasons for its binding affinity for MDM2. 4n at 50 nM is capable of inducing the accumulation of p53 protein, inducing significant apoptotic cell death without affecting the cell cycle progression. Comparative studies using nutlin in the same cellular system confirm the potential of 4n as a tool for increasing understanding of the process involved in the nontranscriptional proapoptotic activities of p53.

Discovery of PTPRJ agonist peptides that effectively inhibit in vitro cancer cell proliferation and tube formation.

PTPRJ is a receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase involved in both physiological and oncogenic pathways. We previously reported that its expression is strongly reduced in the majority of explored cancer cell lines and tumor samples; moreover, its restoration blocks in vitro cancer cell proliferation and in vivo tumor formation. By means of a phage display library screening, we recently identified two peptides able to bind and activate PTPRJ, resulting in cell growth inhibition and apoptosis of both cancer and endothelial cells. Here, on a previously discovered PTPRJ agonist peptide, PTPRJ-pep19, we synthesized and assayed a panel of nonapeptide analogues with the aim to identify specific amino acid residues responsible for peptide activity. These second-generation nonapeptides were tested on both cancer and primary endothelial cells (HeLa and HUVEC, respectively); interestingly, one of them (PTPRJ-19.4) was able to both dramatically reduce cell proliferation and effectively trigger apoptosis of both HeLa and HUVECs compared to its first-generation counterpart. Moreover, PTPRJ-pep19.4 significantly inhibited in vitro tube formation on Matrigel. Intriguingly, while ERK1/2 phosphorylation and cell proliferation were both inhibited by PTPRJ-pep19.4 in breast cancer cells (MCF-7 and SKBr3), no effects were observed on primary normal human mammary endothelial cells (HMEC). We further characterized these peptides by molecular modeling and NMR experiments reporting, for the most active peptide, the possibility of self-aggregation states and highlighting new hints of structure-activity relationship. Thus, our results indicate that this nonapeptide might represent a great potential lead for the development of novel targeted anticancer drugs.

Amino Acid derivatives as new zinc binding groups for the design of selective matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors.

A number of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are important medicinal targets for conditions ranging from rheumatoid arthritis to cardiomyopathy, periodontal disease, liver cirrhosis, multiple sclerosis, and cancer invasion and metastasis, where they showed to have a dual role, inhibiting or promoting important processes involved in the pathology. MMPs contain a zinc (II) ion in the protein active site. Small-molecule inhibitors of these metalloproteins are designed to bind directly to the active site metal ions. In an effort to devise new approaches to selective inhibitors, in this paper, we describe the synthesis and preliminary biological evaluation of amino acid derivatives as new zinc binding groups (ZBGs). The incorporation of selected metal-binding functions in more complex biphenyl sulfonamide moieties allowed the identification of one compound able to interact selectively with different MMP enzymatic isoforms.

Design, Synthesis, and Evaluation of New Tripeptides as COX-2 Inhibitors.

Cyclooxygenase (COX) is a key enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway leading to the formation of prostaglandins, which are mediators of inflammation. It exists mainly in two isoforms COX-1 and COX-2. The conventional nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have gastrointestinal side effects because they inhibit both isoforms. Recent data demonstrate that the overexpression of these enzymes, and in particular of cyclooxygenases-2, promotes multiple events involved in tumorigenesis; in addition, numerous studies show that the inhibition of cyclooxygenases-2 can delay or prevent certain forms of cancer. Agents that inhibit COX-2 while sparing COX-1 represent a new attractive therapeutic development and offer a new perspective for a further use of COX-2 inhibitors. The present study extends the evaluation of the COX activity to all 20(3) possible natural tripeptide sequences following a rational approach consisting in molecular modeling, synthesis, and biological tests. Based on data obtained from virtual screening, only those peptides with better profile of affinity have been selected and classified into two groups called S and E. Our results suggest that these novel compounds may have potential as structural templates for the design and subsequent development of the new selective COX-2 inhibitors drugs.

Characterization of a selective CaMKII peptide inhibitor.

Analogs of potent CaMKinase II inhibitor, CaM-KNtide, were prepared to explore new structural requirements for the inhibitory activity. The full potency of CaMKII inhibition by CaM-KIINα is contained within a minimal region of 19 amino acids. Here, analysis of the homologous CaM-KIINß showed that a 17 mer peptide (CN17ß) was the shortest sequence that still retained useful inhibitory potency. Ala substitution of almost any residue of CN17ß dramatically reduced potency, except for substitution of P3, R14, and V16. Fusion with the tat sequence generated the cell-penetrating inhibitor version tat-5. This tat-5 fusion peptide maintained selectivity for CaMKII over CaMKI and CaMKIV, and appeared to slightly further enhance potency (IC50 ∼30 nM). Within a breast cancer cell line and in primary human fibroblasts, tat-5 inhibited the Erk signaling pathway and proliferation without any measurable cytotoxicity. Structural analysis of CN17ß by CD and NMR indicated an α-helix conformation in the Leu6-Arg11 segment well overlapping with the crystal structure of 21-residue segment of CaM-KNtide bound to the kinase domain of CaMKII.