The Dutch Dystrophinopathy Database: A National Registry with Standardized Patient and Clinician Reported Real-World Data1.

Background: Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy lack curative treatments. Registers can facilitate therapy development, serving as a platform to study epidemiology, assess clinical trial feasibility, identify eligible candidates, collect real-world data, perform post-market surveillance, and collaborate in (inter)national data-driven initiatives. Objective: In addressing these facets, it's crucial to gather high-quality, interchangeable, and reusable data from a representative population. We introduce the Dutch Dystrophinopathy Database (DDD), a national registry for patients with DMD or BMD, and females with pathogenic DMD variants, outlining its design, governance, and use. Methods: The design of DDD is based on a system-independent information model that ensures interoperable and reusable data adhering to international standards. To maximize enrollment, patients can provide consent online and participation is allowed on different levels with contact details and clinical diagnosis as minimal requirement. Participants can opt-in for yearly online questionnaires on disease milestones and medication and to have clinical data stored from visits to one of the national reference centers. Governance involves a general board, advisory board and database management. Results: On November 1, 2023, 742 participants were enrolled. Self-reported data were provided by 291 Duchenne, 122 Becker and 38 female participants. 96% of the participants visiting reference centers consented to store clinical data. Eligible patients were informed about clinical studies through DDD, and multiple data requests have been approved to use coded clinical data for quality control, epidemiology and natural history studies. Conclusion: The Dutch Dystrophinopathy Database captures long-term patient and high-quality standardized clinician reported healthcare data, supporting trial readiness, post-marketing surveillance, and effective data use using a multicenter design that is scalable to other neuromuscular disorders.

T Cell Responses to Dystrophin in a Natural History Study of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is caused by the lack of dystrophin, but many patients have rare revertant fibers that express dystrophin. The skeletal muscle pathology of DMD patients includes immune cell infiltration and inflammatory cascades. There are several strategies to restore dystrophin in skeletal muscles of patients, including exon skipping and gene therapy. There is some evidence that dystrophin restoration leads to a reduction in immune cells, but dystrophin epitopes expressed in revertant fibers or following genome editing, cell therapy, or microdystrophin delivery after adeno-associated viral gene therapy may elicit T cell production in patients. This may affect the efficacy of the therapeutic intervention, and potentially lead to serious adverse events. To confirm and extend previous studies, we performed annual enzyme- linked immunospot interferon-gamma assays on peripheral blood mononuclear cells from 77 pediatric boys with DMD recruited into a natural history study, 69 of whom (89.6%) were treated with corticosteroids. T cell responses to dystrophin were quantified using a total of 368 peptides spanning the entire dystrophin protein, organized into nine peptide pools. Peptide mapping pools were used to further localize the immune response in one positive patient. Six (7.8%) patients had a T cell-mediated immune response to dystrophin at at least one time point. All patients who had a positive result had been treated with corticosteroids, either prednisolone or prednisone. Our results show that ∼8% of DMD individuals in our cohort have a pre-existing T cell-mediated immune response to dystrophin, despite steroid treatment. Although these responses are relatively low level, this information should be considered a useful immunological baseline before undertaking clinical trials and future DMD studies. We further highlight the importance for a robust, reproducible standard operating procedure for collecting, storing, and shipping samples from multiple centers to minimize the number of inconclusive data.

Low dystrophin variability between muscles and stable expression over time in Becker muscular dystrophy using capillary Western immunoassay.

Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) is the milder allelic variant of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, with higher dystrophin levels. To anticipate on results of interventions targeting dystrophin expression it is important to know the natural variation of dystrophin expression between different muscles and over time. Dystrophin was quantified using capillary Western immunoassay (Wes) in the anterior tibial (TA) muscle of 37 BMD patients. Variability was studied using two samples from the same TA biopsy site in nine patients, assessing nine longitudinal TA biopsies, and eight simultaneously obtained vastus lateralis (VL) muscle biopsies. Measurements were performed in duplicate with two primary antibodies. Baseline dystrophin levels were correlated to longitudinal muscle strength and functional outcomes. Results showed low technical variability and high precision for both antibodies. Dystrophin TA levels ranged from 4.8 to 97.7%, remained stable over a 3-5 year period, and did not correlate with changes in longitudinal muscle function. Dystrophin levels were comparable between TA and VL muscles. Intra-muscle biopsy variability was low (5.2% and 11.4% of the total variability of the two antibodies). These observations are relevant for the design of clinical trials targeting dystrophin production, and may urge the need for other biomarkers or surrogate endpoints.

Novel free-circulating and extracellular vesicle-derived miRNAs dysregulated in Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Aim: To perform cross-sectional and longitudinal miRNA profiling in plasma from Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) subjects and find non-invasive biomarkers in DMD. Subjects/materials & methods: Plasma was collected from 14 age and sex matched controls and 46 DMD subjects. Free-circulating and extracellular vesicle (EV)-derived miRNA expression was measured by RT-qPCR. Results: Free-circulating and EVs derived miR-29c-3p and miR-133a-3p are dysregulated in DMD subjects. Free-circulating and EV-derived miR-29c-3p are reduced in DMD subjects undergoing daily corticosteroid treatment. Free-circulating miR-1-3p and miR-122-5p are longitudinally upregulated in ambulant DMD subjects. Conclusion: We detected novel free-circulating and EV-derived dysregulated miRNAs in plasma from DMD subjects and characterized the longitudinal profile of free-circulating miRNA on plasma from DMD subjects.

Respiratory and upper limb function as outcome measures in ambulant and non-ambulant subjects with Duchenne muscular dystrophy: A prospective multicentre study.

The field of translational research in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) has been transformed in the last decade by a number of therapeutic targets, mostly studied in ambulant patients. A paucity of studies focus on measures that capture the non-ambulant stage of the disease, and the transition between the ambulant and non-ambulant phase. In this prospective natural history study, we report the results of a comprehensive assessment of respiratory, upper limb function and upper limb muscle strength in a group of 89 DMD boys followed in 3 European countries, 81 receiving corticosteroids, spanning a wide age range (5-18 years) and functional abilities, from ambulant (n = 60) to non-ambulant (n = 29). Respiratory decline could be detected in the early ambulatory phase using Peak Expiratory Flow percentage predicted (PEF%), despite glucocorticoid use (mean annual decline: 4.08, 95% CI [-7.44,-0.72], p = 0.02 in ambulant; 4.81, 95% CI [-6.79,-2.82], p < 0.001 in non-ambulant). FVC% captured disease progression in non-ambulant DMD subjects, with an annual loss of 5.47% (95% CI [-6.48,-4.45], p < 0.001). Upper limb function measured with the Performance of Upper Limb (PUL 1.2) showed an annual loss of 4.13 points (95% CI [-4.79,3.47], p < 0.001) in the non-ambulant cohort. Measures of upper limb strength (MyoGrip and MyoPinch) showed a continuous decline independent of the ambulatory status, when reported as percentage predicted (grip force -5.51%, 95% CI [-6.54,-4.48], p < 0.001 in ambulant and a slower decline -2.86%; 95% CI -3.29,-2.43, p < 0.001, in non-ambulant; pinch force: -2.66%, 95% CI [-3.82,-1.51], p < 0.001 in ambulant and -2.23%, 95% CI [-2.92,-1.53], p < 0.001 in non-ambulant). Furthermore, we also explored the novel concept of a composite endpoint by combining respiratory, upper limb function and force domains: we were able to identify clear clinical progression in patients in whom an isolated measurement of only one of these domains failed to appreciate the yearly change. Our study contributes to the field of natural history of DMD, linking the ambulant and non-ambulant phases of the disease, and suggests that composite scores should be explored further.

Sensitivity of MG-ADL for generalized weakness in myasthenia gravis.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Myasthenia gravis activities of daily living (MG-ADL) is a commonly used questionnaire in MG trials. To investigate whether MG-ADL is equally sensitive to oculobulbar and generalized weakness, its correlation with the oculobulbar and generalized domain of the quantitative myasthenia gravis (QMG) score was analyzed (QMGob and QMGgen, respectively). To test whether the sensitivity of MG-ADL for generalized weakness could be improved, the additional value of ACTIVLIM on top of MG-ADL in the prediction QMGgen in was investigated. METHODS: MG-ADL, QMG and ACTIVLIM, an ADL questionnaire focusing on generalized weakness, were analyzed in a prospective cohort of 112 MG patients. A generalized linear model was used to calculate the correlation of MG-ADL with QMGob and QMGgen and to assess the additional value of ACTIVLIM on top of MG-ADL for its correlation with QMGgen. RESULTS: MG-ADL had a higher correlation with QMGob than with QMGgen (B = 0.68, P < 0.001, and B = 0.38, P < 0.001, respectively). A similar trend was found for changes in the scores (B = 0.68, P = 0.132, and B = 0.39, P = 0.492, respectively). ACTIVLIM had a significant additional value on top of MG-ADL in the prediction of QMGgen, both cross-sectionally (B = -0.61, P < 0.001) and for changes within individual patients (B = -0.93, P = 0.041). CONCLUSION: MG-ADL has a lower sensitivity for generalized weakness than for oculobulbar weakness. Adding questions on generalized weakness would improve the sensitivity of the MG-ADL for generalized weakness.

Evaluation of serum MMP-9 as predictive biomarker for antisense therapy in Duchenne.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is a severe muscle disorder caused by lack of dystrophin. Predictive biomarkers able to anticipate response to the therapeutic treatments aiming at dystrophin re-expression are lacking. The objective of this study is to investigate Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) as predictive biomarker for Duchenne. Two natural history cohorts were studied including 168 longitudinal samples belonging to 66 patients. We further studied 1536 samples obtained from 3 independent clinical trials with drisapersen, an antisense oligonucleotide targeting exon 51: an open label study including 12 patients; a phase 3 randomized, double blind, placebo controlled study involving 186 patients; an open label extension study performed after the phase 3. Analysis of natural history cohorts showed elevated MMP-9 levels in patients and a significant increase over time in longitudinal samples. MMP-9 decreased in parallel to clinical stabilization in the 12 patients involved in the open label study. The phase 3 study and subsequent extension study clarified that the decrease in MMP-9 levels was not predictive of treatment response. These data do not support the inclusion of serum MMP-9 as predictive biomarker for DMD patients.

Spatially localized phosphorous metabolism of skeletal muscle in Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients: 24-month follow-up.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the changes in phosphodiester (PDE)-levels, detected by 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), over 24-months to determine the potential of PDE as marker for muscle tissue changes in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) patients. METHODS: Spatially resolved phosphorous datasets were acquired in the right lower leg of 18 DMD patients (range: 5-15.4 years) and 12 age-matched healthy controls (range: 5-14 years) at three time-points (baseline, 12-months, and 24-months) using a 7T MR-System (Philips Achieva). 3-point Dixon images were acquired at 3T (Philips Ingenia) to determine muscle fat fraction. Analyses were done for six muscles that represent different stages of muscle wasting. Differences between groups and time-points were assessed with non-parametric tests with correction for multiple comparisons. Coefficient of variance (CV) were determined for PDE in four healthy adult volunteers in high and low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) datasets. RESULTS: PDE-levels were significantly higher (two-fold) in DMD patients compared to controls in all analyzed muscles at almost every time point and did not change over the study period. Fat fraction was significantly elevated in all muscles at all time points compared to healthy controls, and increased significantly over time, except in the tibialis posterior muscle. The mean within subject CV for PDE-levels was 4.3% in datasets with high SNR (>10:1) and 5.7% in datasets with low SNR. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The stable two-fold increase in PDE-levels found in DMD patients in muscles with different levels of muscle wasting over 2-year time, including DMD patients as young as 5.5 years-old, suggests that PDE-levels may increase very rapidly early in the disease process and remain elevated thereafter. The low CV values in high and low SNR datasets show that PDE-levels can be accurately and reproducibly quantified in all conditions. Our data confirms the great potential of PDE as a marker for muscle tissue changes in DMD patients.

Non-uniform muscle fat replacement along the proximodistal axis in Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

The progressive replacement of muscle tissue by fat in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) has been studied using quantitative MRI between, but not within, individual muscles. We studied fat replacement along the proximodistal muscle axis using the Dixon technique on a 3T MR scanner in 22 DMD patients and 12 healthy controls. Mean fat fractions per muscle per slice for seven lower and upper leg muscles were compared between and within groups assuming a parabolic distribution. Average fat fraction for a small central slice stack and a large coverage slice stack were compared to the value when the stack was shifted one slice (15 mm) up or down. Higher fat fractions were observed in distal and proximal muscle segments compared to the muscle belly in all muscles of the DMD subjects (p <0.001). A shift of 15 mm resulted in a difference in mean fat fraction which was on average 1-2% ranging up to 12% (p <0.01). The muscle end regions are exposed to higher mechanical strain, which points towards mechanical disruption of the sarcolemma as one of the key factors in the pathophysiology. Overall, this non-uniformity in fat replacement needs to be taken into account to prevent sample bias when applying quantitative MRI as biomarker in clinical trials for DMD.

Elevated phosphodiester and T2 levels can be measured in the absence of fat infiltration in Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients.

Quantitative MRI and MRS are increasingly important as non-invasive outcome measures in therapy development for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). Many studies have focussed on individual measures such as fat fraction and metabolite levels in relation to age and functionality, but much less attention has been given to how these indices relate to each other. Here, we assessed spatially resolved metabolic changes in leg muscles of DMD patients, and classified muscles according to the degree of fat replacement compared with healthy controls. Quantitative MRI (three-point Dixon and multi-spin echo without fat suppression and a tri-exponential fit) and 2D-CSI 31 P MRS scans were obtained from 18 DMD patients and 12 healthy controls using a 3 T and a 7 T MR scanner. Metabolite levels, T2 values and fat fraction were individually assessed for five lower leg muscles. In muscles with extensive fat replacement, phosphodiester over adenosine triphosphate (PDE/ATP), inorganic phosphate over phosphocreatine, intracellular tissue pH and T2 were significantly increased compared with healthy controls. In contrast, in muscles without extensive fat replacement, only PDE/ATP and T2 values were significantly elevated. Overall, our results show that PDE levels and T2 values increase prior to the occurrence of fat replacement and remain elevated in later stages of the disease. This suggests that these individual measures could not only function as early markers for muscle damage but also reflect potentially reversible pathology in the more advanced stages.

Evaluation of skeletal muscle DTI in patients with duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is a popular method to assess differences in fiber organization in diseased and healthy muscle tissue. Previous work has shown that muscle DTI measurements depend on signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), %fat, and tissue T2. The goal of this study was to evaluate the potential biasing effects of these factors on skeletal muscle DTI data in patients with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD). MR images were obtained of the right lower leg of 21 DMD patients and 12 healthy controls on a Philips 3T system. DTI measurements were combined with quantitative in-vivo measures of mean water T2, %fat and SNR to evaluate their effect on DTI parameter estimation. All outcome measures were determined within ROIs drawn for six lower leg muscles. Between group analysis, using all ROIs, revealed a significantly elevated FA in the GCL, SOL and PER muscles (p<0.05) and an increased mean diffusivity (p<0.05) and λ3 (p<0.05) in the TA muscle of DMD patients. In-vivo evaluation of the individual confounders showed behaviour in line with predictions from previous simulation work. To account for these confounders, subsequent analysis used only ROIs with SNR greater than 20. With this criterion we found significantly greater MD in the TA muscle of DMD patient (p<0.009) and λ3 in the TA and GCL muscles (p<0.001) of DMD patients, but no differences in FA. As both increased %fat and lower SNR are expected to reduce the apparent MD and λ3, these between-group differences are likely due to pathophysiology. However, the increased FA, observed when using all ROIs, likely reflects the effect of low SNR and %fat on the DTI parameter estimation. These findings suggest that measuring mean water T2, %fat and SNR is essential to ascribe changes in DTI measures to intrinsic diffusion changes or to confounding influences.

An up-date on health-related quality of life in myasthenia gravis -results from population based cohorts.

UNLABELLED: Current available therapies control Myasthenia gravis (MG) reasonably well, but Health Related Quality of life (HRQOL) remains lower than expected. The aim was provide insights in how HRQOL in MG stands across borders and time, compare the scores to general population controls and other chronic disorders and assess the impact of potential predictors for quality of life such as a) clinical characteristics b) antibodies c) thymoma and d) treatment in a population-based cohort. METHODS: We designed a population-based cross-sectional study including 858 patients, 373 from Norway and 485 from the Netherlands. The Short Form Health Survey 36 (SF-36) and a cross-cultural validated questionnaire were used. Data were in addition compared to the general population, other chronic diseases and previous studies. RESULTS: Mean physical composite score was 59.4 and mental composite score 69.0 with no differences between the countries. The mean HRQOL score was lower in patients with bulbar and generalized symptoms (p < 0.001) compared to sex and age adjusted healthy controls, but not in patients with ocular symptoms or patients in remission. Multivariate analysis revealed that female gender, generalized symptoms and use of secondary immunosuppressive drugs at the time of testing were risk factors for reduced HRQOL. CONCLUSIONS: Remission and absence of generalized symptoms were favorable factors for HRQOL in MG patients. Historically, the HRQOL levels have not changed since 2001 and no new clinical predictors could be detected in this exhaustive population-based study. Further studies should explore the impact of non clinical factors like ethnic variations, socio-economic and hormonal factors on HRQOL.

The expanding field of IgG4-mediated neurological autoimmune disorders.

At least 13 different disease entities affecting the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system and connective tissue of the skin or kidneys are associated with immunoglobulin G4 (IgG4) immune reactivity. IgG4 has always been considered a benign, non-inflammatory subclass of IgG, in contrast to the well-known complement-activating pro-inflammatory IgG1 subclass. A comprehensive review of these IgG4 autoimmune disorders reveals striking similarities in epitope binding and human leukocyte antigen (HLA) associations. Mechanical interference of extracellular ligand-receptor interactions by the associated IgG4 antibodies seems to be the common/converging disease mechanism in these disorders.

Geographical Distribution of Myasthenia Gravis in Northern Europe--Results from a Population-Based Study from Two Countries.

OBJECTIVES: To compare the prevalence of myasthenia gravis (MG) subgroups based on immunological markers and clinical presentation in two geographically complete MG populations in northern Europe. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included all living MG patients in Norway and a regional cohort from the Netherlands. Patients were identified using their hospital registration codes. Medical charts of subjects >16 years were reviewed. Inclusion criteria were clinical MG, a positive antibody test for acetylcholine receptor (AChR MG) or muscle-specific kinase (MuSK MG), or if seronegative MG, confirmed by an electrophysiological test. RESULTS: 1,205 MG patients (534 Norwegians and 671 Dutch) fulfilled the criteria, giving a higher point prevalence in the Netherlands (167/million, 95% CI 155-180) than in Norway (138/million, 95% CI 126-150). In particular, rates of AChR MG (143 vs. 111/million), MuSK MG (6.5 vs. 0.5/million), and ocular phenotype (62 vs. 24/million) were higher in the Netherlands. CONCLUSION: Novel findings are an AChR MG geographical north-south gradient and a 2.6-fold more ocular MG patients in the Netherlands than in Norway. The MuSK MG latitudinal gradient supports the notion of a north-south gradient in Europe, with a higher prevalence in the south. The variation is probably explained by genetic differences between the populations, in addition to environmental interactions.

Studying the role of dystrophin-associated proteins in influencing Becker muscular dystrophy disease severity.

Becker muscular dystrophy is characterized by a variable disease course. Many factors have been implicated to contribute to this diversity, among which the expression of several components of the dystrophin associated glycoprotein complex. Together with dystrophin, most of these proteins anchor the muscle fiber cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix, thus protecting the muscle from contraction induced injury, while nNOS is primarily involved in inducing vasodilation during muscle contraction, enabling adequate muscle oxygenation. In the current study, we investigated the role of three components of the dystrophin associated glycoprotein complex (beta-dystroglycan, gamma-sarcoglycan and nNOS) and the dystrophin homologue utrophin on disease severity in Becker patients. Strength measurements, data about disease course and fresh muscle biopsies of the anterior tibial muscle were obtained from 24 Becker patients aged 19 to 66. The designation of Becker muscular dystrophy in this study was based on the mutation and not on the clinical severity. Contrary to previous studies, we were unable to find a relationship between expression of nNOS, beta-dystroglycan and gamma-sarcoglycan at the sarcolemma and disease severity, as measured by muscle strength in five muscle groups and age at reaching several disease milestones. Unexpectedly, we found an inverse correlation between utrophin expression at the sarcolemma and age at reaching disease milestones.

Guidelines for pre-clinical animal and cellular models of MuSK-myasthenia gravis.

Muscle-specific tyrosine kinase (MuSK) autoantibodies are the hallmark of a form of myasthenia gravis (MG) that can challenge the neurologist and the experimentalist. The clinical disease can be difficult to treat effectively. MuSK autoantibodies affect the neuromuscular junction in several ways. When added to muscle cells in culture, MuSK antibodies disperse acetylcholine receptor clusters. Experimental animals actively immunized with MuSK develop MuSK autoantibodies and muscle weakness. Weakness is associated with reduced postsynaptic acetylcholine receptor numbers, reduced amplitudes of miniature endplate potentials and endplate potentials, and failure of neuromuscular transmission. Similar impairments have been found in mice injected with IgG from MG patients positive for MuSK autoantibody (MuSK-MG). The active and passive models have begun to reveal the mechanisms by which MuSK antibodies disrupt synaptic function at the neuromuscular junction, and should be valuable in developing therapies for MuSK-MG. However, translation into new and improved treatments for patients requires procedures that are not too cumbersome but suitable for examining different aspects of MuSK function and the effects of potential therapies. Study design, conduct and analysis should be carefully considered and transparently reported. Here we review what has been learnt from animal and culture models of MuSK-MG, and offer guidelines for experimental design and conduct of studies, including sample size determination, randomization, outcome parameters and precautions for objective data analysis. These principles may also be relevant to the increasing number of other antibody-mediated diseases that are now recognized.

Muscle MRS detects elevated PDE/ATP ratios prior to fatty infiltration in Becker muscular dystrophy.

Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD) is characterized by progressive muscle weakness. Muscles show structural changes (fatty infiltration, fibrosis) and metabolic changes, both of which can be assessed using MRI and MRS. It is unknown at what stage of the disease process metabolic changes arise and how this might vary for different metabolites. In this study we assessed metabolic changes in skeletal muscles of Becker patients, both with and without fatty infiltration, quantified via Dixon MRI and (31) P MRS. MRI and (31) P MRS scans were obtained from 25 Becker patients and 14 healthy controls using a 7 T MR scanner. Five lower-leg muscles were individually assessed for fat and muscle metabolite levels. In the peroneus, soleus and anterior tibialis muscles with non-increased fat levels, PDE/ATP ratios were higher (P < 0.02) compared with controls, whereas in all muscles with increased fat levels PDE/ATP ratios were higher compared with healthy controls (P ≤ 0.05). The Pi /ATP ratio in the peroneus muscles was higher in muscles with increased fat fractions (P = 0.005), and the PCr/ATP ratio was lower in the anterior tibialis muscles with increased fat fractions (P = 0.005). There were no other significant changes in metabolites, but an increase in tissue pH was found in all muscles of the total group of BMD patients in comparison with healthy controls (P < 0.05). These findings suggest that (31) P MRS can be used to detect early changes in individual muscles of BMD patients, which are present before the onset of fatty infiltration.

Temporalis muscle hypertrophy and reduced skull eccentricity in Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Muscle hypertrophy and muscle weakness are well known in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Decreased muscle force can have secondary effects on skeletal growth and development such as facial and dental morphology changes. In this study, we quantified temporal muscle thickness, circumference, and eccentricity of the skull and the head on T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the head of 15 Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients and 15 controls. Average temporal muscle thickness was significantly increased in patients (12.9 ± 5.2 mm) compared to controls (6.8 ± 1.4 mm) (P < .0001), whereas the shape of the skull was significantly rounder compared to controls. Temporal muscle thickness and skull eccentricity were significantly negatively correlated in patients, and positively in controls. Hypertrophy of the temporal muscles and changes in skull eccentricity appear to occur early in the course of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Further studies in younger patients are needed to confirm a causal relationship.

Quantitative MRI and strength measurements in the assessment of muscle quality in Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

The purpose of this study was to assess leg muscle quality and give a detailed description of leg muscle involvement in a series of Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients using quantitative MRI and strength measurements. Fatty infiltration, as well as total and contractile (not fatty infiltrated) cross sectional areas of various leg muscles were determined in 16 Duchenne patients and 11 controls (aged 8-15). To determine specific muscle strength, four leg muscle groups (quadriceps femoris, hamstrings, anterior tibialis and triceps surae) were measured and related to the amount of contractile tissue. In patients, the quadriceps femoris showed decreased total and contractile cross sectional area, attributable to muscle atrophy. The total, but not the contractile, cross sectional area of the triceps surae was increased in patients, corresponding to hypertrophy. Specific strength decreased in all four muscle groups of Duchenne patients, indicating reduced muscle quality. This suggests that muscle hypertrophy and fatty infiltration are two distinct pathological processes, differing between muscle groups. Additionally, the quality of remaining muscle fibers is severely reduced in the legs of Duchenne patients. The combination of quantitative MRI and quantitative muscle testing could be a valuable outcome parameter in longitudinal studies and in the follow-up of therapeutic effects.

Clinical characterisation of Becker muscular dystrophy patients predicts favourable outcome in exon-skipping therapy.

OBJECTIVE: Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy (DMD/BMD) are both caused by mutations in the DMD gene. Out-of-frame mutations in DMD lead to absence of the dystrophin protein, while in-frame BMD mutations cause production of internally deleted dystrophin. Clinically, patients with DMD loose ambulance around the age of 12, need ventilatory support at their late teens and die in their third or fourth decade due to pulmonary or cardiac failure. BMD has a more variable disease course. The disease course of patients with BMD with specific mutations could be very informative to predict the outcome of the exon-skipping therapy, aiming to restore the reading-frame in patients with DMD. METHODS: Patients with BMD with a mutation equalling a DMD mutation after successful exon skipping were selected from the Dutch Dystrophinopathy Database. Information about disease course was gathered through a standardised questionnaire. Cardiac data were collected from medical correspondence and a previous study on cardiac function in BMD. RESULTS: Forty-eight patients were included, representing 11 different mutations. Median age of patients was 43 years (range 6-67). Nine patients were wheelchair users (26-56 years). Dilated cardiomyopathy was present in 7/36 patients. Only one patient used ventilatory support. Three patients had died at the age of 45, 50 and 76 years, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides mutation specific data on the course of disease in patients with BMD. It shows that the disease course of patients with BMD, with a mutation equalling a 'skipped' DMD mutation is relatively mild. This finding strongly supports the potential benefit of exon skipping in patients with DMD.