Long-acting CCK analogue NN9056 lowers food intake and body weight in obese Göttingen Minipigs.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a regulator of appetite and energy intake in man. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of NN9056, a long-acting CCK-1 receptor-selective CCK analogue, on food intake and body weight (BW) in obese Göttingen Minipigs. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Tolerability of NN9056 and acute effects on food intake, pancreas histology, amylase and lipase levels were assessed in lean domestic pigs in doses up to 100 nmol/kg (n = 3-4). Subsequently, obese Göttingen Minipigs were treated subcutaneously (s.c.) once daily for 13 weeks with vehicle, NN9056 low dose (regulated from 5 to 2 nmol/kg) or NN9056 high dose (10 nmol/kg) (n = 7-8). Food intake was measured daily and BW twice weekly. At the end of the treatment period, an intravenous glucose tolerance test (IVGTT) and a 24-h exposure profile was obtained. Data are mean ± SD. RESULTS: The acute studies in domestic pigs showed significant and dose-dependent effect of NN9056 on food intake, acceptable tolerability and no histopathological signs of pancreatitis. Sub-chronic treatment in obese Göttingen Minipigs was also well tolerated and accumulated food intake was significantly lower in both treated groups compared to vehicle, with no significant difference between the dose levels of NN9056 (41.8 ± 12.6, 51.5 ± 13.8 and 86.5 ± 19.5 kg in high-dose, low-dose and vehicle groups, respectively, p = 0.012 and p < 0.0001 for low and high dose vs. vehicle, respectively). Accordingly, there was a weight loss in both treated groups vs. a weight gain in the vehicle group (-7.2 ± 4.6%, -2.3 ± 3.2% and 12.3 ± 3.9% in the high-dose, low-dose and vehicle groups, respectively, p < 0.0001 for both vs. vehicle). IVGTT data were not significantly different between groups. CONCLUSION: NN9056, a long-acting CCK-1 receptor-selective CCK analogue, significantly reduced food intake and BW in obese Göttingen Minipigs after once daily s.c. dosing for 13 weeks.

Structure-Activity Relationships and Characterization of Highly Selective, Long-Acting, Peptide-Based Cholecystokinin 1 Receptor Agonists.

A group of peptide-based, long-acting, stable, highly selective cholecystokinin 1 receptor (CCK-1R) agonists with the potential to treat obesity has been identified and characterized, based on systematic investigation of synthetic CCK-8 analogues with N-terminal linkage to fatty acids. Sulfated Tyr in such compounds was stable in neutral buffer. CCK-1R selectivity was achieved mostly by introducing d- N-methyl-Asp instead of Asp at the penultimate position of CCK-8. Our compound 9 (NN9056) showed similar in vitro CCK-1R potency and CCK-1R affinity as CCK-8, very high selectivity for CCK-1R over the cholecystokinin 2 receptor (CCK-2R), strong reduction of food intake in lean pigs for up to 48 h after one subcutaneous injection without adverse effects, a plasma half-life of 113 h in minipigs after intravenous injection, and acceptable chemical stability in a neutral liquid formulation. In addition, we found a highly selective CCK-2R agonist by replacing Gly in a CCK-8 derivative with Glu.

Establishment and use of surgical rat models for assessment of organ specific in vivo clearance.

Knowledge of clearance plays a key role in the development of new drug entities, especially in the development of improved analogues for treatment of chronic conditions. Improved pharmacokinetic properties can be used to increase dosing interval and thereby improve patient compliance. This will lead to improved treatment outcome or decreased risk of treatment failure when treating chronic conditions. Therefore, animal models for assessment of organ-specific clearance are of great value in preclinical drug development. These models can be used to obtain insights into the relative importance of a clearance organ and thereby guide drug design of new analogues in early drug discovery. The current PhD project was undertaken to explore surgical in vivo models, which could be used in the assessment of the relative importance of major clearance organs. It was the aim of the PhD project to establish and validate both a nephrectomy model and a hepatectomy model as tools to investigate relative importance of renal and hepatic clearance. Furthermore, the project aim was to investigate renal clearance of rFVIIa and rhGH using a nephrectomy model in rats. The thesis is composed of a short theoretical background, a literature review, two papers based on experimental work as well as experimental work not included in the papers. Chapter one is an introduction with the specific aims and hypotheses. The chapters from two to five contain theoretical background of the clearance concept, anatomical and physiological description of clearance organs and a brief overview of potential clearance models including in vivo models. Chapters six through nine highlight the experimental work with the results obtained during the PhD project. Lastly, the chapters from ten to twelve contain a general discussion, conclusion and perspectives of the current thesis. Paper I "Nephrectomized and hepatectomized animal models as tools in preclinical pharmacokinetics" provides a literature review of animal models previously used as tools to investigate renal and hepatic clearance. An overview of the surgical procedures previously described for establishment of in vivo nephrectomy and hepatectomy models is given. Many different surgical methods have been employed in the attempt to make anephric or anhepatic in vivo models. The overall conclusion of the literature review was that a suitable clearance model would require only one surgical procedure. Furthermore, the clearance studies should be conducted immediately after completed surgery to decrease the impact on other clearance pathways and physiology in general. Paper II "The kidneys play an important role in the clearance of rFVIIa in rats" describes the establishment, validation and use of an in vivo model for assessment of renal clearance. The model employed was a rat nephrectomy model and the compounds investigated were inulin and rFVIIa. General physiology was assumed to be close to normal as rectal temperature, oxygen saturation and pulse were within normal range during the pharmacokinetic studies. Nephrectomy significantly reduced clearance of rFVIIa and almost completely abolished clearance of inulin. Thus, it was concluded that the nephrectomy model could be used in assessment of the relative importance of the kidneys in the clearance of rFVIIa and the data obtained indicate that renal clearance accounts for 50% of total body clearance of rFVIIa. Paper III "The kidneys play a central role in the clearance of rhGH in rats" addresses renal clearance of rhGH. The in vivo model established in Paper II was used in a pharmacokinetic study of rhGH to assess the relative importance of the kidneys in the clearance of rhGH. The conclusion drawn based on this study was that the kidneys account for 90% of total body clearance of rhGH in anaesthetized rats. Furthermore, it was noted that anaesthesia reduced clearance of rhGH by 36% compared to non-anaesthetized rats. In conclusion, establishment, validation and use of a rat nephrectomy model as a tool to investigate renal clearance was successful, but an in vivo rat model of hepatic clearance model was not successfully established.

The kidneys play a central role in the clearance of rhGH in rats.

The kidneys are thought to play an important role in the clearance of recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH), but the relative importance is not clear. Obtaining knowledge of clearance pathway is an important prerequisite for the development of new long acting growth hormone analogues targeted at treatment of patients with growth hormone disorders. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relative importance of the kidneys in the clearance of rhGH. The study employed a newly validated nephrectomy rat model and a population based pharmacokinetic approach to assess renal clearance of rhGH in non-anesthetized rats, anesthetized rats and in nephrectomized anesthetized rats. Clearance in non-anesthetized rats was 290 ml/h/kg. This was reduced to 185 ml/h/kg by anesthesia and further reduced to 18 ml/h/kg by nephrectomy. As nephrectomy was able to reduce clearance with 90%, we conclude that renal clearance plays a pivotal role in the elimination of rhGH in rats.

Colonic Lesions, Cytokine Profiles, and Gut Microbiota in Plasminogen-Deficient Mice.

Plasminogen-deficient (FVB/NPan-plg(tm1Jld), plg(tm1Jld)) mice, which are widely used as a wound-healing model, are prone to spontaneous rectal prolapses. The aims of this study were 1) to evaluate the fecal microbiome of plg(tm1Jld) mice for features that might contribute to the development of rectal prolapses and colonic inflammation and 2) to assess the relevance of the inflammatory phenotype to the variability in wound healing in this model. The (plgtm1Jld) mice exhibited delayed wound healing, and they could be divided into 3 distinct groups that differed according to the time until wound closure. Colonic lesions in plg(tm1Jld) mice, which were characterized by necrotizing ulcerations and cystically dilated glands, were restricted to the intermediate and distal parts of the colon. The cytokine profile was indicative of chronic tissue damage, but the genetic modification did not change the composition of the gut microbiota, and none of the clinical or biochemical parameters correlated with the gut microbiota composition.

The kidneys play an important role in the clearance of rFVIIa in rats.

INTRODUCTION: Previous distribution and histological studies have indicated that the kidneys and renal proximal tubular cells play a role in clearance of rFVIIa. However, the relative importance of the kidneys in clearance of rFVIIa has not previously been addressed. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the importance of the kidneys in the clearance process of rFVIIa after iv administration to rats using a nephrectomy model. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A nephrectomized rat model was established and validated using inulin, a compound primarily cleared by the kidneys, as a test substance and several physiological parameters were monitored to ensure viability and robustness of the model. The model was then used for pharmacokinetic evaluation of renal clearance of rFVIIa. The pharmacokinetic parameters for rFVIIa were evaluated both by use of standard non-compartmental methods and by use of mixed effects methods, where a pharmacokinetic model was used to simultaneously model all data from healthy, sham operated, and nephrectomized rats. RESULTS: Nephrectomized animals showed stable rectal temperature, SpO2 and pulse and as expected, clearance of inulin was essentially abolished compared to control animals (p<0.001). For rFVIIa, nephrectomy resulted in a clearance and terminal half-life of 34mL/h/kg and 2.8h compared to 68mL/h/kg and1.9h in rats exposed to sham surgery (p<0.0001 for both parameters). CONCLUSION: The present data show that about 50% of the total clearance of rFVIIa from circulation in rats under isoflurane anaesthesia is due to renal clearance.

Nephrectomized and hepatectomized animal models as tools in preclinical pharmacokinetics.

Early understanding of the pharmacokinetics and metabolic patterns of new drug candidates is essential for selection of optimal candidates to move further in to the drug development process. In vitro methodologies can be used to investigate metabolic patterns, but in general, they lack several aspects of the whole-body physiology. In contrast, the complexity of intact animals does not necessarily allow individual processes to be identified. Animal models lacking a major excretion organ can be used to investigate these individual metabolic processes. Animal models of nephrectomy and hepatectomy have considerable potential as tools in preclinical pharmacokinetics to assess organs of importance for drug clearance and thereby knowledge of potential metabolic processes to manipulate to improve pharmacokinetic properties of the molecules. Detailed knowledge of anatomy and surgical techniques is crucial to successfully establish the models, and a well-balanced anaesthesia and adequate monitoring of the animals are also of major importance. An obvious drawback of animal models lacking an organ is the disruption of normal homoeostasis and the induction of dramatic and ultimately mortal systemic changes in the animals. Refining of the surgical techniques and the post-operative supportive care of the animals can increase the value of these models by minimizing the systemic changes induced, and thorough validation of nephrectomy and hepatectomy models is needed before use of such models as a tool in preclinical pharmacokinetics. The present MiniReview discusses pros and cons of the available techniques associated with establishing nephrectomy and hepatectomy models.