Adverse effect of lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic: increased incidence of pediatric crisis admissions due to eating disorders and adolescent intoxications.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, countries imposed (partial) lockdowns that reduced viral transmission. However, these interventions may have unfavorable effects on emotional and psychological well-being. The aim of this study was to quantify possible adverse effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on psychological wellbeing in children and adolescents. Hospital admission data between January 2017 and September 2021 from eight general hospitals in the Netherlands was collected, comparing the incidences of sub-categorized psychological diagnoses, more specifically eating disorders, intentional intoxications, accidental intoxications, and excessive crying, before (2017-2019) and during the pandemic (2020-2021). Data was summarized per month and per year, and the years 2020 and 2021 were compared to 2017-2019. The relative increase or decrease in diagnoses since the start of the pandemic was calculated. Overall pediatric hospital admissions decreased with 28% since the start of the pandemic. Non-infectious diagnoses showed a decrease of 8%. Of these non-infectious diagnoses, overall psychosocial admissions were increased (+ 9%), mostly caused by an increase in admissions for eating disorders (+ 64%) and intoxications in adolescents (+ 24%). In addition, the proportion of admissions due to psychosocial diagnoses increased post-pandemic (6% vs 4%, p < 0.001). Overall admissions for intoxications in children (- 3%) and excessive crying (- 1%) did not increase, although peaks in incidence were found at the start of the second lockdown. CONCLUSION: During the COVID-19 pandemic, admission rates for eating disorders and intentional intoxications showed a substantial increase, indicating a high burden of pediatric psychiatric diseases. WHAT IS KNOWN: • The COVID-19 pandemic has had an impact on psychosocial wellbeing in children and adolescents. WHAT IS NEW: • There was an increase in admissions due to psychosocial problems in the Netherlands in the period after the pandemic. • This was mainly caused by an increase in crisis admissions due to eating disorders and intoxications in adolescents.

Effect of lockdowns on the epidemiology of pediatric respiratory disease-A retrospective analysis of the 2021 summer epidemic.

BACKGROUND: The imposition of lockdowns during the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 pandemic led to a significant decrease in pediatric care utilization in 2020. After restrictions were loosened, a surge in pediatric respiratory disease was observed in pediatric wards. The aim of this study was to quantify the effect of the lockdown(s) on the incidence of pediatric respiratory disease. METHODS: For this multicenter retrospective study, emergency department (ED) visit and admission data between January 2017 and September 2021 was collected from eight general hospitals in the Netherlands. Clinical diagnoses were extracted and categorized in groups ("communicable infectious disease," "all respiratory infections," "upper respiratory tract infection," "lower respiratory tract infection," and "asthma/preschool wheezing"). The incidence of admissions and ED visits during 2020 and 2021 was compared to the incidence in 2017-2019. RESULTS: Successive lockdowns resulted in a maximum decrease of 61% and 57% in ED visits and admissions, respectively. After loosening restrictions during the summer of 2021, a 48% overall increase in ED visits and 31% overall increase in admission numbers was observed in July compared to the average July in 2017-2019. This was explained by a 381% increase in ED visits and a 528% increase in ward admissions due to overall respiratory infections, mainly due to lower respiratory tract infections. CONCLUSIONS: Successive lockdowns in the spring and winter of 2020 and 2021 led to a decreased incidence of communicable infections, especially respiratory tract infections. The resulting lack of pediatric immunity resulted in an off-season surge in care utilization at an unexpected moment.

Midazolam Infusion and Disease Severity Affect the Level of Sedation in Children: A Parametric Time-to-Event Analysis.

AIM: In critically ill mechanically ventilated children, midazolam is used first line for sedation, however its exact sedative effects have been difficult to quantify. In this analysis, we use parametric time-to-event (PTTE) analysis to quantify the effects of midazolam in critically ill children. METHODS: In the PTTE analysis, data was analyzed from a published study in mechanically ventilated children in which blinded midazolam or placebo infusions were administered during a sedation interruption phase until, based on COMFORT-B and NISS scores, patients became undersedated and unblinded midazolam was restarted. Using NONMEM® v.7.4.3., restart of unblinded midazolam was analysed as event. Patients in the trial were divided into internal and external validation cohorts prior to analysis. RESULTS: Data contained 138 events from 79 individuals (37 blinded midazolam; 42 blinded placebo). In the PTTE model, the baseline hazard was best described by a constant function. Midazolam reduced the hazard for restart of unblinded midazolam due to undersedation by 51%. In the blinded midazolam group, time to midazolam restart was 26 h versus 58 h in patients with low versus high disease severity upon admission (PRISM II < 10 versus > 21), respectively. For blinded placebo, these times were 14 h and 33 h, respectively. The model performed well in an external validation with 42 individuals. CONCLUSION: The PTTE analysis effectively quantified the effect of midazolam in prolonging sedation and also the influence of disease severity on sedation in mechanically ventilated critically ill children, and provides a valuable tool to quantify the effect of sedatives. Clinical trial number and registry URL: Netherlands Trial Register, Trial NL1913 (NTR2030), date registered 28 September 2009 https://www.trialregister.nl/trial/1913 .

Benefit-Risk Assessment of Off-Label Drug Use in Children: The Bravo Framework.

A drug is granted a license for use after a thorough assessment of risks and benefits based on high-quality scientific proof of its efficacy and safety. Many drugs that are relevant to children are not licensed for use in this population implying that a thorough assessment of risks and benefits in the pediatric population has not been made at all, implying a negative risk-benefit balance in children, or implying insufficient information to establish the risk-benefit balance. Use of drugs without positive assessment of risks and benefits exposes children to potential lack of efficacy, unknown toxicity, and harm. To aid guideline committees and individual prescribers, we here present a tutorial of the Benefit and Risk Assessment for Off-label use (BRAvO) decision framework. This pragmatic framework offers a structured assessment of benefits and risks of off-label drug use, including a clinical pharmacological based approach to age-appropriate dose selection. As proof of concept and to illustrate the practical use, we have applied the framework to assess benefits and risks of off-label use of ondansetron for gastroenteritis-induced nausea and vomiting. The framework could also guide decisions on off-label use in other special populations (e.g., pregnant women, elderly, obese, or critically ill patients) where off-label drug use is frequent, thereby contributing to effective and safe pharmacotherapy.

The impact of lockdown on pediatric ED visits and hospital admissions during the COVID19 pandemic: a multicenter analysis and review of the literature.

The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has enormous impact on society and healthcare. Countries imposed lockdowns, which were followed by a reduction in care utilization. The aims of this study were to quantify the effects of lockdown on pediatric care in the Netherlands, to elucidate the cause of the observed reduction in pediatric emergency department (ED) visits and hospital admissions, and to summarize the literature regarding the effects of lockdown on pediatric care worldwide. ED visits and hospital admission data of 8 general hospitals in the Netherlands between January 2016 and June 2020 were summarized per diagnosis group (communicable infections, noncommunicable infections, (probable) infection-related, and noninfectious). The effects of lockdown were quantified with a linear mixed effects model. A literature review regarding the effect of lockdowns on pediatric clinical care was performed. In total, 126,198 ED visits and 47,648 admissions were registered in the study period. The estimated reduction in general pediatric care was 59% and 56% for ED visits and admissions, respectively. The largest reduction was observed for communicable infections (ED visits: 76%; admissions: 77%), whereas the reduction in noninfectious diagnoses was smaller (ED visits 36%; admissions: 37%). Similar reductions were reported worldwide, with decreases of 30-89% for ED visits and 19-73% for admissions.Conclusion: Pediatric ED utilization and hospitalization during lockdown were decreased in the Netherlands and other countries, which can largely be attributed to a decrease in communicable infectious diseases. Care utilization for other conditions was decreased as well, which may indicate that care avoidance during a pandemic is significant. What is Known: • The COVID-19 pandemic had enormous impact on society. • Countries imposed lockdowns to curb transmission rates, which were followed by a reduction in care utilization worldwide. What is New: • The Dutch lockdown caused a significant decrease in pediatric ED utilization and hospitalization, especially in ED visits and hospital admissions because of infections that were not caused by SARS-CoV-2. • Care utilization for noninfectious diagnoses was decreased as well, which may indicate that pediatric care avoidance during a pandemic is significant.

Population Pharmacokinetics of Intravenous Salbutamol in Children with Refractory Status Asthmaticus.

BACKGROUND: Intravenous salbutamol is used to treat children with refractory status asthmaticus, however insufficient pharmacokinetic data are available to guide initial and subsequent dosing recommendations for its intravenous use. The pharmacologic activity of salbutamol resides predominantly in the (R)-enantiomer, with little or no activity and even concerns of adverse reactions attributed to the (S)-enantiomer. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to develop a population pharmacokinetic model to characterize the pharmacokinetic profile for intravenous salbutamol in children with status asthmaticus admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU), and to use this model to study the effect of different dosing schemes with and without a loading dose. METHODS: From 19 children (median age 4.9 years [range 9 months-15.3 years], median weight 18 kg [range 7.8-70 kg]) treated with continuous intravenous salbutamol at the PICU, plasma samples for R- and S-salbutamol concentrations (111 samples), as well as asthma scores, were collected prospectively at the same time points. Possible adverse reactions and patients' clinical data (age, sex, weight, drug doses, liver and kidney function) were recorded. With these data, a population pharmacokinetic model was developed using NONMEM 7.2. After validation, the model was used for simulations to evaluate the effect of different dosing regimens with or without a loading dose. RESULTS: A two-compartment model with separate clearance for R- and S-salbutamol (16.3 L/h and 8.8 L/h, respectively) best described the data. Weight was found to be a significant covariate for clearance and volume of distribution. No other covariates were identified. Simulations showed that a loading dose can result in higher R-salbutamol concentrations in the early phase after the start of infusion therapy, preventing accumulation of S-salbutamol. CONCLUSIONS: The pharmacokinetic model of intravenous R- and S-salbutamol described the data well and showed that a loading dose should be considered in children. This model can be used to evaluate the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationship of intravenous salbutamol in children, and, as a next step, the effectiveness and tolerability of intravenous salbutamol in children with severe asthma.

Predicting CYP3A-mediated midazolam metabolism in critically ill neonates, infants, children and adults with inflammation and organ failure.

AIMS: Inflammation and organ failure have been reported to have an impact on cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A-mediated clearance of midazolam in critically ill children. Our aim was to evaluate a previously developed population pharmacokinetic model both in critically ill children and other populations, in order to allow the model to be used to guide dosing in clinical practice. METHODS: The model was evaluated externally in 136 individuals, including (pre)term neonates, infants, children and adults (body weight 0.77-90 kg, C-reactive protein level 0.1-341 mg l-1 and 0-4 failing organs) using graphical and numerical diagnostics. RESULTS: The pharmacokinetic model predicted midazolam clearance and plasma concentrations without bias in postoperative or critically ill paediatric patients and term neonates [median prediction error (MPE) <30%]. Using the model for extrapolation resulted in well-predicted clearance values in critically ill and healthy adults (MPE <30%), while clearance in preterm neonates was over predicted (MPE >180%). CONCLUSION: The recently published pharmacokinetic model for midazolam, quantifying the influence of maturation, inflammation and organ failure in children, yields unbiased clearance predictions and can therefore be used for dosing instructions in term neonates, children and adults with varying levels of critical illness, including healthy adults, but not for extrapolation to preterm neonates.

Short-Term Health-Related Quality of Life of Critically Ill Children Following Daily Sedation Interruption.

OBJECTIVE: Our earlier pediatric daily sedation interruption trial showed that daily sedation interruption in addition to protocolized sedation in critically ill children does not reduce duration of mechanical ventilation, length of stay, or amounts of sedative drugs administered when compared with protocolized sedation only, but undersedation was more frequent in the daily sedation interruption + protocolized sedation group. We now report the preplanned analysis comparing short-term health-related quality of life and posttraumatic stress symptoms between the two groups. DESIGN: Preplanned prospective part of a randomized controlled trial. SETTING: Two tertiary medical-surgical PICUs in the Netherlands. PATIENTS: Critically ill children requiring mechanical ventilation. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Eight weeks after a child's discharge from the PICU, health-related quality of life was assessed with the validated Child Health Questionnaire and, only for children above 4 years old, posttraumatic stress was assessed with the Dutch Children's Responses to Trauma Inventory. Additionally, health-related quality of life of all study patients was compared with Dutch normative data. Of the 113 patients from two participating centers in the original study, 96 patients were eligible for follow-up and 64 patients were included (response rate, 67%). No difference was found with respect to health-related quality of life between the two study groups. None of the eight children more than 4 years old showed posttraumatic stress symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Daily sedation interruption in addition to protocolized sedation for critically ill children did not seem to have an effect on short-term health-related quality of life. Also in view of the earlier found absence of effect on clinical outcome, we cannot recommend the use of daily sedation interruption + protocolized sedation.

Sedation in Critically Ill Children with Respiratory Failure.

This article discusses the rationale of sedation in respiratory failure, sedation goals, how to assess the need for sedation as well as effectiveness of interventions in critically ill children, with validated observational sedation scales. The drugs and non-pharmacological approaches used for optimal sedation in ventilated children are reviewed, and specifically the rationale for drug selection, including short- and long-term efficacy and safety aspects of the selected drugs. The specific pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic aspects of sedative drugs in the critically ill child and consequences for dosing are presented. Furthermore, we discuss different sedation strategies and their adverse events, such as iatrogenic withdrawal syndrome and delirium. These principles can guide clinicians in the choice of sedative drugs in pediatric respiratory failure.

Inflammation and Organ Failure Severely Affect Midazolam Clearance in Critically Ill Children.

RATIONALE: Various in vitro, animal, and limited human adult studies suggest a profound inhibitory effect of inflammation and disease on cytochrome P-450 3A (CYP3A)-mediated drug metabolism. Studies showing this relationship in critically ill patients are lacking, whereas clearance of many CYP3A drug substrates may be decreased, potentially leading to toxicity. OBJECTIVES: To prospectively study the relationship between inflammation, organ failure, and midazolam clearance as a validated marker of CYP3A-mediated drug metabolism in critically ill children. METHODS: From 83 critically ill children (median age, 5.1 mo [range, 0.02-202 mo]), midazolam plasma (n = 532), cytokine (e.g., IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α), and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels; organ dysfunction scores (Pediatric Risk of Mortality II, Pediatric Index of Mortality 2, Pediatric Logistic Organ Dysfunction); and number of failing organs were prospectively collected. A population pharmacokinetic model to study the impact of inflammation and organ failure on midazolam pharmacokinetics was developed using NONMEM 7.3. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: In a two-compartmental pharmacokinetic model, body weight was the most significant covariate for clearance and volume of distribution. CRP and organ failure were significantly associated with clearance (P < 0.01), explaining both interindividual and interoccasional variability. In simulations, a CRP of 300 mg/L was associated with a 65% lower clearance compared with 10 mg/L, and three failing organs were associated with a 35% lower clearance compared with one failing organ. CONCLUSIONS: Inflammation and organ failure strongly reduce midazolam clearance, a surrogate marker of CYP3A-mediated drug metabolism, in critically ill children. Hence, critically ill patients receiving CYP3A substrate drugs may be at risk of increased drug levels and associated toxicity.

A randomized controlled trial of daily sedation interruption in critically ill children.

PURPOSE: To compare daily sedation interruption plus protocolized sedation (DSI + PS) to protocolized sedation only (PS) in critically ill children. METHODS: In this multicenter randomized controlled trial in three pediatric intensive care units in the Netherlands, mechanically ventilated critically ill children with need for sedative drugs were included. They were randomly assigned to either DSI + PS or PS only. Children in both study arms received sedation adjusted on the basis of validated sedation scores. Provided a safety screen was passed, children in the DSI + PS group received daily blinded infusions of saline; children in the PS group received blinded infusions of the previous sedatives/analgesics. If a patient's sedation score indicated distress, the blinded infusions were discontinued, a bolus dose of midazolam was given and the 'open' infusions were resumed: DSI + PS at half of infusion rate, PS at previous infusion rate. The primary endpoint was the number of ventilator-free days at day 28. Data were analyzed by intention to treat. RESULTS: From October 2009 to August 2014, 129 children were randomly assigned to DSI + PS (n = 66) or PS (n = 63). The study was terminated prematurely due to slow recruitment rates. Median number of ventilator-free days did not differ: DSI + PS 24.0 days (IQR 21.6-25.8) versus PS 24.0 days (IQR 20.6-26.0); median difference 0.02 days (95 % CI -0.91 to 1.09), p = 0.90. Median ICU and hospital length of stay were similar in both groups: DSI + PS 6.9 days (IQR 5.2-11.0) versus PS 7.4 days (IQR 5.3-12.8), p = 0.47, and DSI + PS 13.3 days (IQR 8.6-26.7) versus PS 15.7 days (IQR 9.3-33.2), p = 0.19, respectively. Mortality at 30 days was higher in the DSI + PS group than in the PS group (6/66 versus 0/63, p = 0.03), though no causal relationship to the intervention could be established. Median cumulative midazolam dose did not differ: DSI + PS 14.1 mg/kg (IQR 7.6-22.6) versus PS 17.0 mg/kg (IQR 8.2-39.8), p = 0.11. CONCLUSION: In critically ill children, daily sedation interruption in addition to protocolized sedation did not improve clinical outcome and was associated with increased mortality compared with protocolized sedation only.

Daily interruption of sedation in critically ill children: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: In adult patients who are critically ill and mechanically ventilated, daily interruption of sedation (DSI) is an effective method of improving sedation management, resulting in a decrease of the duration of mechanical ventilation, the length of stay in the intensive care unit (ICU) and the length of stay in the hospital. It is a safe and effective approach and is common practice in adult ICUs. For critically ill children it is unknown if DSI is effective and feasible. The aim of this multicenter randomized controlled trial is to evaluate the safety and efficacy of daily sedation interruption in critically ill children. METHODS/DESIGN: Children between 0 and 18 years of age who require mechanical ventilation, with an expected duration of at least 48 h and need for sedative infusion, will be included. After enrollment patients will be randomly assigned to DSI in combination with protocolized sedation (intervention group) or protocolized continuous sedation (control group). A sedation protocol that contains an algorithm for increasing and weaning of sedatives and analgesics will be used. The sedative infusion will be restarted if the patient becomes uncomfortable or agitated according to the sedation protocol. The primary endpoint is the number of ventilator-free days at 28 days. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NTR2030.

Randomized controlled trial of daily interruption of sedatives in critically ill children.

AIM: To study the feasibility of daily interruption of sedatives in critically ill children. METHODS: Prospective randomized controlled open-label trial, performed in a pediatric intensive care unit of a tertiary care teaching and referring hospital. 30 children (0-12 years) receiving mechanically ventilation for >24 h were included. In the intervention group, all sedatives were stopped daily and restarted when COMFORT-behavior score ≥17. The control group received standard care. Primary end points were amounts of sedatives and number of bolus medications in the first 3 days after enrollment and number of (near) incidents. Secondary end points were duration of mechanical ventilation, length of stay in pediatric intensive care, and changes in COMFORT-behavior score. RESULTS: Midazolam and morphine use were lower in the intervention group compared with the control group (P = 0.007 and P = 0.02, respectively), whereas the number of bolus medications did not differ between groups. Two complications were recorded: one patient (intervention group) lost his intravenous line, and one patient (control group) had an unplanned extubation. Duration of mechanical ventilation was significantly shorter in the intervention group compared with the control group (median [interquartile range] of 4 [3-8] and 9 [4-10] days, respectively, P = 0.03). Length of stay in the PICU in the intervention group was significantly shorter than in the control group (median [interquartile range] of 6 [4-9] and 10 [7-15] days, respectively, P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Daily interruption of sedatives in critically ill children is feasible, results in decreased use of sedation, earlier extubation, and shorter length of stay.

Analgesia-sedation in PICU and neurological outcome: a secondary analysis of long-term neuropsychological follow-up in meningococcal septic shock survivors*.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate whether analgesic and sedative drug use during PICU treatment is associated with long-term neurodevelopmental outcome in children who survived meningococcal septic shock. DESIGN: This study concerned a secondary analysis of data from medical and psychological follow-up of a cross-sectional cohort of all consecutive surviving patients with septic shock and purpura requiring intensive care treatment between 1988 and 2001 at the Erasmus MC-Sophia Children's Hospital. At least 4 years after PICU admission, these children showed impairments on several domains of neuropsychological functioning. In the present study, type, number, and dose of sedatives and analgesics were retrospectively evaluated. SETTING: Tertiary care university hospital. PATIENTS: Seventy-seven meningococcal septic shock survivors (median age, 2.1 yr). INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Forty-five patients (58%) received one or more analgesic and/or sedative drugs during PICU admission, most commonly benzodiazepines (n = 39; 51%), followed by opioids (n = 23; 30%). In total, 12 different kinds of analgesic or sedative drugs were given. The use and dose of opioids were significantly associated with poor test outcome on full-scale intelligence quotient (p = 0.02; Z = -2.28), verbal intelligence quotient (p = 0.02; Z = -2.32), verbal intelligence quotient subtests (verbal comprehension [p = 0.01; Z = -2.56] and vocabulary [p = 0.01; Z = -2.45]), and visual attention/executive functioning (Trial Making Test part B) (p = 0.03; Z = -2.17). In multivariate analysis adjusting for patient and disease characteristics, the use of opioids remained significant on most neuropsychological tests. CONCLUSIONS: The use of opioids during PICU admission was significantly associated with long-term adverse neuropsychological outcome independent of severity of illness scores in meningococcal septic shock survivors.

Optimal sedation in pediatric intensive care patients: a systematic review.

PURPOSE: Sedatives administered to critically ill children should be titrated to effect, because both under- and oversedation may have negative effects. We conducted a systematic review to examine reported incidences of under-, optimal, and oversedation in critically ill children receiving intensive care. METHODS: A systematic literature search using predefined criteria was performed in PubMed and Embase to identify all articles evaluating level of sedation in PICU patients receiving continuous sedation. Two authors independently recorded: study objective, study design, sample size, age range, details of study intervention (if applicable), sedatives used, length of sedation, sedation scale used, and incidences of optimal, under-, and oversedation as defined in the studies. RESULTS: Twenty-five studies were included. Two studies evaluated sedation level as primary study outcome; the other 23 as secondary outcomes. Together, these studies investigated 1,163 children; age range, 0-18 years. Across studies, children received many different sedative agents and sedation level was assessed with 12 different sedation scales. Optimal sedation was ascertained in 57.6 % of the observations, under sedation in 10.6 %, and oversedation in 31.8 %. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that sedation in the PICU is often suboptimal and seldom systematically evaluated. Oversedation is more common than undersedation. As oversedation may lead to longer hospitalization, tolerance, and withdrawal, preventing oversedation in pediatric intensive care deserves greater attention.

The effect of critical illness and inflammation on midazolam therapy in children.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of inflammation and disease severity on midazolam pharmacokinetics (as surrogate marker of cytochrome 3A activity) and pharmacodynamics in critically ill children. DESIGN: Analysis of prospectively collected pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data from a midazolam study in critically ill children. SETTING: Pediatric intensive care unit of a university hospital. PATIENTS: Twenty-one critically ill children who needed midazolam for sedation. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We determined the relationship between inflammation (using C-reactive protein and leukocyte count as surrogate markers) and disease severity (Pediatric Logistic Organ Dysfunction and Pediatric Risk of Mortality scores) vs. the pharmacokinetics (clearance) and pharmacodynamics (COMFORT score, dose requirement) of midazolam. We found a significant negative correlation between disease severity and midazolam clearance corrected for body weight (r = -0.49, p = .02). Midazolam clearance was significantly lower in children with multiple organ failure (defined as Pediatric Logistic Organ Dysfunction ≥ 10, n = 11) compared with children without multiple organ failure (Pediatric Logistic Organ Dysfunction <10, n = 10) (median 0.14 [interquartile range, 0.11-0.23] vs. 0.28 [interquartile range, 0.14-0.43]) L/kg/h, p = .035). No other significant correlations were found. CONCLUSIONS: Results from this pilot study suggest that increased disease severity is associated with reduced midazolam clearance in critically ill children, most likely as a result of reduced cytochrome 3A activity. In contrast, reduced midazolam clearance does not seem to result in decreased midazolam dose requirements.