Engineering adeno-associated viral vectors to evade innate immune and inflammatory responses.

Nucleic acids are used in many therapeutic modalities, including gene therapy, but their ability to trigger host immune responses in vivo can lead to decreased safety and efficacy. In the case of adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors, studies have shown that the genome of the vector activates Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9), a pattern recognition receptor that senses foreign DNA. Here, we engineered AAV vectors to be intrinsically less immunogenic by incorporating short DNA oligonucleotides that antagonize TLR9 activation directly into the vector genome. The engineered vectors elicited markedly reduced innate immune and T cell responses and enhanced gene expression in clinically relevant mouse and pig models across different tissues, including liver, muscle, and retina. Subretinal administration of higher-dose AAV in pigs resulted in photoreceptor pathology with microglia and T cell infiltration. These adverse findings were avoided in the contralateral eyes of the same animals that were injected with the engineered vectors. However, intravitreal injection of higher-dose AAV in macaques, a more immunogenic route of administration, showed that the engineered vector delayed but did not prevent clinical uveitis, suggesting that other immune factors in addition to TLR9 may contribute to intraocular inflammation in this model. Our results demonstrate that linking specific immunomodulatory noncoding sequences to much longer therapeutic nucleic acids can "cloak" the vector from inducing unwanted immune responses in multiple, but not all, models. This "coupled immunomodulation" strategy may widen the therapeutic window for AAV therapies as well as other DNA-based gene transfer methods.

Efficacy of fluralaner spot-on solution against induced infestations with Rhipicephalus sanguineus on dogs.

BACKGROUND: The efficacy of fluralaner spot-on solution administered once topically against induced infestations with Rhipicephalus sanguineus was evaluated in dogs over a 12-week post-treatment period. METHODS: Six negative-controlled studies were conducted, involving a total of 112 adult dogs (57 mixed breed, 47 Beagles, eight Labradors). In each study, dogs were randomized to two groups of eight to ten dogs each. On day 0, dogs in each treated group were topically administered fluralaner spot-on solution once at a dose of 25 mg/kg body weight, while dogs in each control group were not treated. Two days before treatment, and on days 28, 56 and 84 after treatment, all dogs were infested with approximately 50 unfed, adult Rh. sanguineus ticks (sex ratio 1:1). Ticks were removed and counted on days 2, 30 (4 weeks), 58 (8 weeks), and 86 (12 weeks) after treatment to assess efficacy. RESULTS: Efficacy against ticks 2 days after treatment was 91.1 % (study 1), 98.4 % (study 2), 100 % (study 3), 97.6 % (study 4), 99.6 % (study 5), and 99.8 % (study 6). At all other assessment time points, tick efficacy was 95.4-100 %. Tick reduction in all treatment groups was significant at all assessment time points (P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: A single topical administration of fluralaner spot-on solution provides a high level of therapeutic and persistent efficacy against Rh. sanguineus ticks over the subsequent 12 weeks.

A Translational Model for Diet-related Atherosclerosis: Effect of Statins on Hypercholesterolemia and Atherosclerosis in a Minipig.

Models of atherosclerosis are used in preclinical studies but often fail to translate to humans. A model that better reflects human atherosclerosis is necessary. We recently engineered the ExeGen™ low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) miniswine, in which the LDL receptor gene is modified to drive hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis, and showed diet-related exacerbation of these phenotypes. Five groups of animals, either wild type (+/+) or heterozygous (+/-), were fed either a normal or high-fat diet for 6 months. One group of heterozygous pigs fed a high-fat diet was also administered atorvastatin at 3 mg/kg/day. Clinical chemistry and anatomic pathology parameters were measured biweekly and at termination. The high-fat diet resulted in increased adiposity and interspersion of adipocytes within the salivary glands. The heterozygous pigs on the high-fat diet gained more weight and had significant increases in total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein, and LDL compared to wild-type animals or heterozygous animals fed a normal diet. Atorvastatin attenuated these parameters, indicating the statin had a beneficial effect, even in a high-fat diet scenario. Atorvastatin treatment also reduced the intensity of Oil Red O staining in pigs on high-fat diet. Atorvastatin-related amelioration of several indices of cardiovascular pathophysiology in this model underscores its utility for drug discovery.

Phosphatidylinositol synthase is required for lens structural integrity and photoreceptor cell survival in the zebrafish eye.

The zebrafish lens opaque (lop) mutant was previously isolated in a genetic screen and shown to lack rod and cone photoreceptors and exhibit lens opacity, or cataract, at 7 days post-fertilization (dpf). In this manuscript, we provide four different lines of evidence demonstrating that the lop phenotype results from a defect in the cdipt (phosphatidylinositol (PI) synthase; CDP-diacylglycerol-inositol 3-phosphatidyltransferase) gene. First, DNA sequence analysis revealed that the lop mutant contained a missense mutation in the lop open reading frame, which yields a nonconservative amino acid substitution (Ser-111-Cys) within the PI synthase catalytic domain. Second, morpholino-mediated knockdown of the cdipt-encoded PI synthase protein phenocopied the cdipt(lop/lop) mutant, with abnormal lens epithelial and secondary fiber cell morphologies and reduced numbers of photoreceptors. Third, microinjection of in vitro transcribed, wild-type cdipt mRNA into 1-4 cell stage cdipt(lop/lop) embryos significantly reduced the percentage of larvae displaying lens opacity at 7 dpf. Fourth, a cdipt retroviral-insertion allele, cdipt(hi559), exhibited similar lens and retinal abnormalities and failed to complement the cdipt(lop) mutant phenotype. To determine the initial cellular defects associated with the cdipt mutant, we examined homozygous cdipt(hi559/hi559) mutants prior to gross lens opacification at 6 dpf. The cdipt(hi559/hi559) mutants first exhibited photoreceptor layer disruption and photoreceptor cell death at 3 and 4 dpf, respectively, followed by lens dismorphogenesis by 5 dpf. RT-PCR revealed that the cdipt gene is maternally expressed and continues to be transcribed throughout development and into adulthood, in a wide variety of tissues. Using an anti-zebrafish PI synthase polyclonal antiserum, we localized the protein throughout the developing eye, including the photoreceptor layer and lens cortical secondary fiber cells. As expected, the polyclonal antiserum revealed that the PI synthase protein was reduced in amount in both the cdipt(lop/lop) and cdipt(hi559/hi559) mutants. Furthermore, we used a heterologous yeast phenotypic complementation assay to confirm that the wild-type zebrafish cdipt allele encodes functional PI synthase activity. Taken together, the cdipt-encoded PI synthase is required for survival of photoreceptor cells and lens epithelial and secondary cortical fiber cells. These zebrafish cdipt alleles represent excellent in vivo genetic tools to study the role of phosphatidylinositol and its phosphorylated derivatives in lens and photoreceptor development and maintenance.

The loss of vacuolar protein sorting 11 (vps11) causes retinal pathogenesis in a vertebrate model of syndromic albinism.

PURPOSE: To establish the zebrafish platinum mutant as a model for studying vision defects caused by syndromic albinism diseases such as Chediak-Higashi syndrome, Griscelli syndrome, and Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome (HPS). METHODS: Bulked segregant analysis and candidate gene sequencing revealed that the zebrafish platinum mutation is a single-nucleotide insertion in the vps11 (vacuolar protein sorting 11) gene. Expression of vps11 was determined by RT-PCR and in situ hybridization. Mutants were analyzed for pigmentation defects and retinal disease by histology, immunohistochemistry, and transmission electron microscopy. RESULTS: Phenocopy and rescue experiments determined that a loss of Vps11 results in the platinum phenotype. Expression of vps11 appeared ubiquitous during zebrafish development, with stronger expression in the developing retina and retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE). Zebrafish platinum mutants exhibited reduced pigmentation in the body and RPE; however, melanophore development, migration, and dispersion occurred normally. RPE, photoreceptors, and inner retinal neurons formed normally in zebrafish platinum mutants. However, a gradual loss of RPE, an absence of mature melanosomes, and the subsequent degradation of RPE/photoreceptor interdigitation was observed. CONCLUSIONS: These data show that Vps11 is not necessary for normal retinal development or initiation of melanin biosynthesis, but is essential for melanosome maturation and healthy maintenance of the RPE and photoreceptors.

Cellular expression of midkine-a and midkine-b during retinal development and photoreceptor regeneration in zebrafish.

In the retina of adult teleosts, stem cells are sustained in two specialized niches: the ciliary marginal zone (CMZ) and the microenvironment surrounding adult Müller glia. Recently, Müller glia were identified as the regenerative stem cells in the teleost retina. Secreted signaling molecules that regulate neuronal regeneration in the retina are largely unknown. In a microarray screen to discover such factors, we identified midkine-b (mdkb). Midkine is a highly conserved heparin-binding growth factor with numerous biological functions. The zebrafish genome encodes two distinct midkine genes: mdka and mdkb. Here we describe the cellular expression of mdka and mdkb during retinal development and the initial, proliferative phase of photoreceptor regeneration. The results show that in the embryonic and larval retina mdka and mdkb are expressed in stem cells, retinal progenitors, and neurons in distinct patterns that suggest different functions for the two molecules. Following the selective death of photoreceptors in the adult, mdka and mdkb are coexpressed in horizontal cells and proliferating Müller glia and their neurogenic progeny. These data reveal that Mdka and Mdkb are signaling factors present in the retinal stem cell niches in both embryonic and mature retinas, and that their cellular expression is actively modulated during retinal development and regeneration.

Teleost lens development and degeneration.

The transparent properties of the lens and its ability to focus light onto the retina are critical for normal vision. Optical clarity of the lens is achieved and maintained by a unique, highly regulated integration of lens cell proliferation and differentiation that persists throughout life. Zebrafish is a powerful genetic model for studying vertebrate lens differentiation and growth because the structural organization of the lens and gene functions are largely conserved with mammals, including humans. However, some features of zebrafish lens developmental morphology and gene expression are different from those of mammals and other terrestrial vertebrates. For example, the presumptive zebrafish lens delaminates from the surface ectoderm to form a solid mass of cells, in which the primary fibers differentiate by elongating in circular fashion. Both mutational and candidate gene analyses have identified and characterized developmental gene functions of the lens in zebrafish. This chapter presents the recent morphological analysis of zebrafish lens formation. In addition, the roles of Pitx3, Foxe3, and the lens-specific protein Lengsin (LENS Glutamine SYNthetase-like) in lens development are analyzed. Selected zebrafish lens mutants defective in early developmental processes and the maintenance of lens transparency are also discussed.

Age-related cone abnormalities in zebrafish with genetic lesions in sonic hedgehog.

PURPOSE: Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling is essential for photoreceptor differentiation and retinal cell survival in embryonic zebrafish. The study was conducted to determine whether adult heterozygous carriers of mutant alleles for the shh gene display retinal abnormalities. METHODS: Retinal cryosections from young, middle-aged, and senescent wild-type and sonic-you(+/-) (syu(+/-)) zebrafish were probed with retinal cell type-specific markers. Contralateral retinal flatmounts from these fish, and from adult albino zebrafish subjected to light-induced photoreceptor damage followed by regeneration, were hybridized with blue cone opsin cRNA for quantitative analysis of the blue cone pattern. Retinal expression of shh mRNA was measured by quantitative RT-PCR. RESULTS: Regions of cone loss and abnormal cone morphology were observed in the oldest syu(+/-) zebrafish, although no other retinal cell type was affected. This phenotype was age-related and genotype-specific. Cone distribution in the oldest syu(+/-) zebrafish was predominantly random, as assessed by measuring the short-range pattern, whereas that of wild-type fish and the younger syu(+/-) zebrafish was statistically regular. A measure of long-range pattern revealed atypical cone aggregation in the oldest syu(+/-) zebrafish. The light-treated albino zebrafish displayed random cone patterns immediately after light toxicity, but showed cone aggregation on regeneration. Retinas from the syu(+/-) fish showed reduced expression of shh mRNA compared with those of wild-type siblings. CONCLUSIONS: The syu(+/-) zebrafish presents a model for the study of hereditary age-related cone abnormalities. The syu(+/-) retinas most likely experience progressive cone photoreceptor loss, accompanied by cone regeneration. Shh signaling may be required to maintain cone viability throughout life.

Immunohistochemical evidence for multiple photosystems in box jellyfish.

Cubomedusae (box jellyfish) possess a remarkable visual system with 24 eyes distributed in four sensory structures termed rhopalia. Each rhopalium is equipped with six eyes: two pairs of pigment cup eyes and two unpaired lens eyes. Each eye type probably captures specific features of the visual environment. To investigate whether multiple types of photoreceptor cells are present in the rhopalium, and whether the different eye types possess different types of photoreceptors, we have used immunohistochemistry with a range of vertebrate opsin antibodies to label the photoreceptors, and electroretinograms (ERG) to determine their spectral sensitivity. All photoreceptor cells of the two lens eyes of the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora and Carybdea marsupialis displayed immunoreactivity for an antibody directed against the zebrafish ultraviolet (UV) opsin, but not against any of eight other rhodopsin or cone opsin antibodies tested. In neither of the two species were the pigment cup eyes immunoreactive for any of the opsin antibodies. ERG analysis of the Carybdea lower lens eyes demonstrated a single spectral sensitivity maximum at 485 nm suggesting the presence of a single opsin type. Our data demonstrate that the lens eyes of box jellyfish utilize a single opsin and are thus color-blind, and that there is probably a different photopigment in the pigment cup eyes. The results support our hypothesis that the lens eyes and the pigment cup eyes of box jellyfish are involved in different and specific visual tasks.

Lengsin expression and function during zebrafish lens formation.

A zebrafish ortholog of human lengsin was identified by EST analysis of an adult lens cDNA library. During zebrafish development, lengsin transcription is first detected at 24 h post-fertilization (hpf). Immunolocalization, using polyclonal antiserum generated against a Lengsin bacterial fusion protein, detects lens-specific protein in whole-mount embryos at 30 hpf. Lengsin expression in zebrafish follows the temporal expression of the alphaA- alphaB1- and betaB1-crystallin proteins in the lens. At 72 hpf, Lengsin is localized to a subpopulation of differentiating secondary fiber cells, while no expression is detected in the lens epithelial cells or central lens fibers. In the adult lens, Lengsin is restricted to a narrow band of cortical fibers and co-localizes with actin at the lateral faces of these interdigitating cells. Stable transgenic lines, using a 3 kb lengsin genomic fragment to regulate EGFP expression, recapitulate the Lengsin temporal and spatial expression patterns. Lengsin function in zebrafish lens formation was examined by antisense morpholino-mediated translation and mRNA splice inhibition. At 72 hpf, the lengsin morphant lenses are reduced in size and exhibit separations within the cortex due to defects in secondary fiber morphogenesis. The location of the morphant lens defects correlates with the Lengsin protein localization at this age. These results demonstrate Lengsin is required for proper fiber cell differentiation by playing roles in either cell elongation or the establishment of cell interactions.

Genetic determinants of hyaloid and retinal vasculature in zebrafish.

BACKGROUND: The retinal vasculature is a capillary network of blood vessels that nourishes the inner retina of most mammals. Developmental abnormalities or microvascular complications in the retinal vasculature result in severe human eye diseases that lead to blindness. To exploit the advantages of zebrafish for genetic, developmental and pharmacological studies of retinal vasculature, we characterised the intraocular vasculature in zebrafish. RESULTS: We show a detailed morphological and developmental analysis of the retinal blood supply in zebrafish. Similar to the transient hyaloid vasculature in mammalian embryos, vessels are first found attached to the zebrafish lens at 2.5 days post fertilisation. These vessels progressively lose contact with the lens and by 30 days post fertilisation adhere to the inner limiting membrane of the juvenile retina. Ultrastructure analysis shows these vessels to exhibit distinctive hallmarks of mammalian retinal vasculature. For example, smooth muscle actin-expressing pericytes are ensheathed by the basal lamina of the blood vessel, and vesicle vacuolar organelles (VVO), subcellular mediators of vessel-retinal nourishment, are present. Finally, we identify 9 genes with cell membrane, extracellular matrix and unknown identity that are necessary for zebrafish hyaloid and retinal vasculature development. CONCLUSION: Zebrafish have a retinal blood supply with a characteristic developmental and adult morphology. Abnormalities of these intraocular vessels are easily observed, enabling application of genetic and chemical approaches in zebrafish to identify molecular regulators of hyaloid and retinal vasculature in development and disease.

Time course analysis of gene expression during light-induced photoreceptor cell death and regeneration in albino zebrafish.

Constant intense light causes apoptosis of rod and cone photoreceptors in adult albino zebrafish. The photoreceptors subsequently regenerate from proliferating inner nuclear layer (INL) progenitor cells that migrate to the outer nuclear layer (ONL) and differentiate into rods and cones. To identify gene expression changes during this photoreceptor regeneration response, a microarray analysis was performed at five time points during the light treatment. The time course included an early time point during photoreceptor death (16 h), later time points during progenitor cell proliferation and migration (31, 51, and 68 h) and a 96 h time point, which likely corresponds to the initial photoreceptor differentiation. Mean expression values for each gene were calculated at each time point relative to the control (0 h light exposure) and statistical analysis by one-way ANOVA identified 4567 genes exhibiting significant changes in gene expression along the time course. The genes within this data set were clustered based on their temporal expression patterns and proposed functions. Quantitative real-time PCR validated the microarray expression profiles for selected genes, including stat3 whose expression increased markedly during the light exposure. Based on immunoblots, both total and activated Stat3 protein expression also increased during the light treatment. Immunolocalization of Stat3 on retinal tissue sections demonstrated increased expression in photoreceptors and Müller glia by 16 h of light exposure. Some of the Stat3-positive Müller cells expressed PCNA at 31 h, suggesting that Stat3 may play a role in signaling a subset of Müller cells to proliferate during the regeneration response.

Zebrafish foxe3: roles in ocular lens morphogenesis through interaction with pitx3.

Foxe3 is a winged helix/forkhead domain transcription factor necessary for mammalian and amphibian lens development. Human FOXE3 mutations cause anterior segment dysgenesis and cataracts. The zebrafish foxe3 cDNA was PCR amplified from 24 h post-fertilization (hpf) embryo cDNA. The zebrafish foxe3 gene consists of a single exon on chromosome 8 and encodes a 422 amino acid protein. This protein possesses 44% and 67% amino acid identity with the human FOXE3 and Xenopus FoxE4 proteins, respectively. A polyclonal antiserum was generated against a bacterial fusion protein containing the Foxe3 carboxyl terminus. The purified antiserum detects zebrafish Foxe3 on immunoblots, in embryo wholemounts, and frozen tissue sections. The zebrafish Foxe3 protein is first detected in the lens at 31hpf and is restricted to the nucleated cell population, including the epithelial and elongating fiber cells. Knockdown of Foxe3 protein using an antisense morpholino results in small lenses with multilayered epithelial cells and fiber cell dysmorphogenesis. The morphants posses normal retinas, although retinal cell proteins, including rhodopsin, are abnormally expressed in the morphant lens tissue. Functional interactions between foxe3 and pitx3 during lens development were assessed by RT-PCR and comparison of Foxe3 and Pitx3 protein expression in both foxe3 and pitx3 morphants. Immunoblots and immunohistochemistry reveal Pitx3 is expressed in the foxe3 morphant lens, while Pitx3 knockdown results in the elimination of Foxe3 expression. These data demonstrate that Foxe3 is necessary for lens development in zebrafish and that foxe3 lies genetically downstream of pitx3 in a zebrafish lens development pathway.

Mutations in laminin alpha 1 result in complex, lens-independent ocular phenotypes in zebrafish.

We report phenotypic and genetic analyses of a recessive, larval lethal zebrafish mutant, bal(a69), characterized by severe eye defects and shortened body axis. The bal(a69) mutation was mapped to chromosome 24 near the laminin alpha 1 (lama1) gene. We analyzed the lama1 gene sequence within bal(a69) embryos and two allelic mutants, bal(arl) and bal(uw1). Missense (bal(a69)), nonsense (bal(arl)), and frameshift (bal(uw1)) alterations in lama1 were found to underlie the phenotypes. Extended analysis of bal(a69) ocular features revealed disrupted lens development with subsequent lens degeneration, focal cornea dysplasia, and hyaloid vasculature defects. Within the neural retina, the ganglion cells showed axonal projection defects and ectopic photoreceptor cells were noted at inner retinal locations. To address whether ocular anomalies were secondary to defects in lens differentiation, bal(a69) mutants were compared to embryos in which the lens vesicle was surgically removed. Our analysis suggests that many of the anterior and posterior ocular defects in bal(a69) are independent of the lens degeneration. Analysis of components of focal adhesion signaling complexes suggests that reduced focal adhesion kinase activation underlies the anterior segment dysgenesis in lama1 mutants. To assess adult ocular phenotypes associated with lama1 mutations, genetic mosaics were generated by transplanting labeled bal cells into ocular-fated regions of wild-type blastulas. Adult chimeric eyes displayed a range of defects including anterior segment dysgenesis and cataracts. Our analysis provides mechanistic insights into the developmental defects and ocular pathogenesis caused by mutations in laminin subunits.

Gene duplication and separation of functions in alphaB-crystallin from zebrafish (Danio rerio).

We previously reported that zebrafish alphaB-crystallin is not constitutively expressed in nervous or muscular tissue and has reduced chaperone-like activity compared with its human ortholog. Here we characterize the tissue expression pattern and chaperone-like activity of a second zebrafish alphaB-crystallin. Expressed sequence tag analysis of adult zebrafish lens revealed the presence of a novel alpha-crystallin transcript designated cryab2 and the resulting protein alphaB2-crystallin. The deduced protein sequence was 58.2% and 50.3% identical with human alphaB-crystallin and zebrafish alphaB1-crystallin, respectively. RT-PCR showed that alphaB2-crystallin is expressed predominantly in lens but, reminiscent of mammalian alphaB-crystallin, also has lower constitutive expression in heart, brain, skeletal muscle and liver. The chaperone-like activity of purified recombinant alphaB2 protein was assayed by measuring its ability to prevent the chemically induced aggregation of alpha-lactalbumin and lysozyme. At 25 degrees C and 30 degrees C, zebrafish alphaB2 showed greater chaperone-like activity than human alphaB-crystallin, and at 35 degrees C and 40 degrees C, the human protein provided greater protection against aggregation. 2D gel electrophoresis indicated that alphaB2-crystallin makes up approximately 0.16% of total zebrafish lens protein. Zebrafish is the first species known to express two different alphaB-crystallins. Differences in primary structure, expression and chaperone-like activity suggest that the two zebrafish alphaB-crystallins perform divergent physiological roles. After gene duplication, zebrafish alphaB2 maintained the widespread protective role also found in mammalian alphaB-crystallin, while zebrafish alphaB1 adopted a more restricted, nonchaperone role in the lens. Gene duplication may have allowed these functions to separate, providing a unique model for studying structure-function relationships and the regulation of tissue-specific expression patterns.

Retinal regional differences in photoreceptor cell death and regeneration in light-lesioned albino zebrafish.

Teleost fish regenerate retinal cells from a population of inner nuclear layer (INL) stem cells. To characterize photoreceptor regeneration in zebrafish (Danio rerio), adult albino fish were subjected to constant intense light to cause photoreceptor cell death. Retinal morphometry was performed on histological sections of control and light-lesioned albino retinas to compare the extent of light damage in the ventral, central and dorsal retinal regions. In addition, opsin immunohistochemistry and TUNEL were used to compare photoreceptor cell death in these different retinal areas, while PCNA immunolabeling quantified the cell proliferation that precedes the photoreceptor regeneration. Transgenic albino; Tg(alpha1-tubulin:egfp) zebrafish were also exposed to the intense light in order to examine regeneration-related gene expression changes. The light-lesioned retinas are characterized by extensive rod and cone photoreceptor cell death in the central and dorsal regions. In contrast, many of the rods and cones survive in the ventral retina. The highest levels of INL cell proliferation, which occurs subsequent to photoreceptor death, correspond to the retinal regions that suffer the greatest levels of photoreceptor damage. In the ventral retina, where photoreceptor cell death is minimal, cell proliferation is confined to the ONL. In addition, EGFP expression from the alpha1-tubulin promoter is increased in Müller glial cells in the light-damaged central and dorsal retina, while transgene expression in the ventral retina is restricted to small, round INL cells. Furthermore, expression of the HuC/D neuronal antigen is detected in a subpopulation of the Müller cells in the light-damaged superior retinal region. These data demonstrate that adult albino zebrafish display retinal regional differences in photoreceptor cell death and in the regeneration-related INL cell proliferation response. The high levels of INL cell proliferation and alpha1-tubulin:egfp transgene expression in the Müller cells may be graded in response to the degree of photoreceptor cell death. This suggests that the levels of photoreceptor damage may directly influence cell responses in the underlying retinal layers.

Expressed sequence tag analysis of zebrafish eye tissues for NEIBank.

PURPOSE: To characterize gene expression patterns in various tissues of the zebrafish (Danio rerio) eye and identify zebrafish orthologs of human genes by expressed sequence tag (EST) analysis for NEIBank. METHODS: mRNA was extracted from adult zebrafish eye tissues, including lenses, anterior segments (minus lens), retinas, posterior segments lacking retinas, and whole eyes. Five different cDNA libraries were constructed in the pCMVSport6 vector. Approximately 4,000 clones from each library were sequenced and analyzed using various bioinformatics programs. RESULTS: The analysis yielded approximately 2,500 different gene clusters for each library. Combining data from the five libraries produced 10,392 unique gene clusters. GenBank accession numbers were identified for 37.6% (3,906) of the total gene clusters in the combined libraries and approximately 50% were linked to Unigene clusters in the current database. Several new crystallin genes, including two gammaN-crystallins, and a second major intrinsic protein (MIP) were identified in the lens library. In addition, a zebrafish homolog of cochlin (COCH), a gene that may play a role in the pathogenesis of human glaucoma, was identified in the anterior segment library. Surprisingly, no clear ortholog of the major retinal transcription factor Nrl was identified. CONCLUSIONS: The zebrafish eye tissue cDNA libraries are a useful resource for comparative gene expression analysis. These libraries will complement the cDNA libraries made for the Zebrafish Gene Collection (ZGC) and provide an additional source for gene identification and characterization in the vertebrate eye.

Zebrafish pitx3 is necessary for normal lens and retinal development.

The human PITX3 gene encodes a bicoid-like homeodomain transcription factor associated with a variety of congenital ocular conditions, including anterior segment dysgenesis, Peter's anomaly, and cataracts. We identified a zebrafish pitx3 gene encoding a protein (Pitx3) that possesses 63% amino acid identity with human PITX3. The zebrafish pitx3 gene encompasses approximately 16.5kb on chromosome 13 and consists of four exons, which is similar to the genomic organization of other pitx genes. Expression of the zebrafish pitx3 gene was studied by in situ mRNA hybridization and RT-PCR. The pitx3 transcripts were detected throughout development with the greatest level of expression occurring in the developing lens and brain at 24hpf. In adults, the highest expression was detected in the eye. Morpholinos were used to knockdown expression of the Pitx3 protein and a control morpholino that contains five mismatched bases was used to confirm the specificity of the phenotypes. The morphants had small eyes, misshapen heads and reduced jaws and fins relative to controls. The morphants exhibited abnormalities in lens development and their retinas contained pyknotic nuclei accompanied by a reduction in the number of cells in different neuronal classes. This suggests the lens is required for retinal development or Pitx3 has an unexpected role in retinal cell differentiation or survival. These results demonstrate zebrafish pitx3 represents a true ortholog of the human PITX3 gene and the general function of the Pitx3 protein in lens development is conserved between mammals and the teleost fish.

gammaN-crystallin and the evolution of the betagamma-crystallin superfamily in vertebrates.

The beta and gamma crystallins are evolutionarily related families of proteins that make up a large part of the refractive structure of the vertebrate eye lens. Each family has a distinctive gene structure that reflects a history of successive gene duplications. A survey of gamma-crystallins expressed in mammal, reptile, bird and fish species (particularly in the zebrafish, Danio rerio) has led to the discovery of gammaN-crystallin, an evolutionary bridge between the beta and gamma families. In all species examined, gammaN-crystallins have a hybrid gene structure, half beta and half gamma, and thus appear to be the 'missing link' between the beta and gamma crystallin lineages. Overall, there are four major classes of gamma-crystallin: the terrestrial group (including mammalian gammaA-F); the aquatic group (the fish gammaM-crystallins); the gammaS group; and the novel gammaN group. Like the evolutionarily ancient beta-crystallins (but unlike the terrestrial gammaA-F and aquatic gammaM groups), both the gammaS and gammaN crystallins form distinct clades with members in fish, reptiles, birds and mammals. In rodents, gammaN is expressed in nuclear fibers of the lens and, perhaps hinting at an ancestral role for the gamma-crystallins, also in the retina. Although well conserved throughout vertebrate evolution, gammaN in primates has apparently undergone major changes and possible loss of functional expression.

Lens opacity and photoreceptor degeneration in the zebrafish lens opaque mutant.

The zebrafish lens opaque (lop) mutant was identified in a chemical mutagenesis screen. The lop mutant, which develops normally through 4 days postfertilization (dpf), exhibits several signs of lens and retinal degeneration at 7 dpf. Histology revealed disrupted lens fibers and increased numbers of nucleated cells within the mutant lens and anterior chamber. The mutant lens also exhibited aberrant epithelial cell morphologies and lacked a definitive transition zone, which suggests that secondary fiber differentiation was interrupted. In addition, the mutant exhibits severely reduced photoreceptors and a reduction in the number of horizontal cells at 7 dpf. Other retinal cell classes appeared unaffected in the mutant. Transmission electron microscopy and opsin immunohistochemistry showed that the different photoreceptor types were generated at the retinal margin, but the rods and cones failed to mature and disappeared. The mutant lens and retina also displayed increased cell proliferation based on proliferating cell nuclear antigen immunolabeling, suggesting that the lens opacity was due to unregulated cell proliferation and undifferentiated cell accumulation within the mutant lens. The lop mutant phenotype supports recent studies showing the lens has a role in regulating teleost retinal development.