Inducible hydrogen sulfide synthesis in chondrocytes and mesenchymal progenitor cells: is H2S a novel cytoprotective mediator in the inflamed joint?

Hydrogen sulfide (H(2)S) has recently been proposed as an endogenous mediator of inflammation and is present in human synovial fluid. This study determined whether primary human articular chondrocytes (HACs) and mesenchymal progenitor cells (MPCs) could synthesize H(2)S in response to pro-inflammatory cytokines relevant to human arthropathies, and to determine the cellular responses to endogenous and pharmacological H(2)S. HACs and MPCs were exposed to IL-1ß, IL-6, TNF-α and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The expression and enzymatic activity of the H(2)S synthesizing enzymes cystathionine-ß-synthase (CBS) and cystathionine-γ-lyase (CSE) were determined by Western blot and zinc-trap spectrophotometry, respectively. Cellular oxidative stress was induced by H(2)O(2), the peroxynitrite donor SIN-1 and 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE). Cell death was assessed by 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assays. Mitochondrial membrane potential (DCm) was determined in situ by flow cytometry. Endogenous H(2) S synthesis was inhibited by siRNA-mediated knockdown of CSE and CBS and pharmacological inhibitors D,L-propargylglycine and aminoxyacetate, respectively. Exogenous H(2)S was generated using GYY4137. Under basal conditions HACs and MPCs expressed CBS and CSE and synthesized H(2)S in a CBS-dependent manner, whereas CSE expression and activity was induced by treatment of cells with IL-1ß, TNF-α, IL-6 or LPS. Oxidative stress-induced cell death was significantly inhibited by GYY4137 treatment but increased by pharmacological inhibition of H(2)S synthesis or by CBS/CSE-siRNA treatment. These data suggest CSE is an inducible source of H(2)S in cultured HACs and MPCs. H(2)S may represent a novel endogenous mechanism of cytoprotection in the inflamed joint, suggesting a potential opportunity for therapeutic intervention.

Frequency of Th17 CD20+ cells in the peripheral blood of rheumatoid arthritis patients is higher compared to healthy subjects.

INTRODUCTION: Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is considered a T cell driven autoimmune disease, therefore, the ability of B cell depleting biologics, e.g., anti-CD20 antibodies, to alleviate RA is unclear. This study examined the proportions of IL-17-secreting lymphocytes in the blood of healthy subjects and RA patients and determined if Th17 cells belong to a CD20+ subset of T cells. METHODS: Fluorescence-activated cell sorting and confocal microscopy verified CD3, CD4/CD8 and CD20-staining of T cells. IL-17 secretion was determined using a commercial assay. RESULTS: In healthy subjects and RA patients blood, the median percentage of total CD20+ lymphocytes was similar (7.5%; n = 6 and 10.3%; n = 9, respectively) and comprised predominantly of B cells (~ 86%). However, 2-4% of CD3+ T cells from both healthy subjects (n = 7) and RA (n = 8) individuals co-expressed CD20. The peripheral blood of healthy subjects contained few IL-17-secreting CD20+ T cells (< 0.1%; n = 6). In contrast, in RA blood a median and interquartile range % of, 24.2%; IQR 28.5 of IL-17-secreting T cells were CD20+ (n = 9; p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: In the blood of RA patients, a greater proportion of Th17 cells are of a CD20+ phenotype compared to healthy individuals. These cells may represent an additional target for anti-CD20 therapies.

Measurement and meaning of markers of reactive species of oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur in healthy human subjects and patients with inflammatory joint disease.

Reactive species of oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur play cell signalling roles in human health, e.g. recent studies have shown that increased dietary nitrate, which is a source of RNS (reactive nitrogen species), lowers resting blood pressure and the oxygen cost of exercise. In such studies, plasma nitrite and nitrate are readily determined by chemiluminescence. At sites of inflammation, such as the joints of RA (rheumatoid arthritis) patients, the generation of ROS (reactive oxygen species) and RNS overwhelms antioxidant defences and one consequence is oxidative/nitrative damage to proteins. For example, in the inflamed joint, increased RNS-mediated protein damage has been detected in the form of a biomarker, 3-nitrotyrosine, by immunohistochemistry, Western blotting, ELISAs and MS. In addition to NO•, another cell-signalling gas produced in the inflamed joint is H2S (hydrogen sulfide), an RSS (reactive sulfur species). This gas is generated by inflammatory induction of H2S-synthesizing enzymes. Using zinc-trap spectrophotometry, we detected high (micromolar) concentrations of H2S in RA synovial fluid and levels correlated with clinical scores of inflammation and disease activity. What might be the consequences of the inflammatory generation of reactive species? Effects on inflammatory cell-signalling pathways certainly appear to be crucial, but in the current review we highlight the concept that ROS/RNS-mediated protein damage creates neoepitopes, resulting in autoantibody formation against proteins, e.g. type-II collagen and the complement component, C1q. These autoantibodies have been detected in inflammatory autoimmune diseases.

Changes in apoptotic gene expression in lymphocytes from rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus patients compared with healthy lymphocytes.

INTRODUCTION: Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and rheumatoid arthritis have complex genetic traits, but in both autoimmune diseases, dysfunctional apoptosis appears to play a part in disease pathology. This study examined the levels of in vitro apoptosis in lymphocytes from healthy, rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and SLE individuals and related observed differences to their lymphocyte apoptosis gene profiles. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Lymphocytes were assessed for cell death by nuclear pyknosis and DNA fragmentation. Control, SLE and RA apoptosis gene profiles were obtained by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (QRT-PCR) analysis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The mean levels of pyknosis in RA and SLE freshly isolated lymphocytes were significantly higher than in control lymphocytes. Ninety-three apoptosis genes were analysed by QRT-PCR of mRNA from RA, SLE and healthy lymphocytes. We identified significant differences (p < 0.05) in the expression of the same 11 of 93 and two of 93 apoptotic genes in individual SLE and RA patients tested as compared with controls. CONCLUSION: We propose that similarly altered expression of specific apoptotic regulatory genes (e.g., the death effector domain-containing DNA-binding protein and apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD) occurs in the lymphocytes of individual patients with SLE or RA that may influence the extent and rate of spontaneous apoptosis in these autoimmune conditions.

Extracellular calreticulin is present in the joints of patients with rheumatoid arthritis and inhibits FasL (CD95L)-mediated apoptosis of T cells.

OBJECTIVE: The binding of FasL (CD95L) to its receptor, Fas (CD95), induces apoptosis. Studies have shown that in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), T lymphocytes are resistant to FasL-induced apoptosis in vivo but are susceptible to FasL-induced apoptosis in vitro. Dysfunction in this mechanism may be an important contributor to the pathophysiology of RA. Thus, the present study was undertaken to determine which factors might inhibit FasL-Fas binding in vivo and those that would inhibit apoptosis of T lymphocytes in an in vitro model system. METHODS: Human Jurkat T cells rendered apoptotic by FasL exposure were analyzed by flow cytometry. Necrosis was determined according to measurement of lactate dehydrogenase release. Quantification of calreticulin in plasma and synovial fluid and of calreticulin-FasL binding was performed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Measurement of nitrite/nitrate in the plasma and synovial fluid was carried out by chemiluminescence assay. RESULTS: Extracellular calreticulin was present at a significantly higher concentration in the plasma (median 10.3 ng/ml, interquartile range [IQR] 14.8 ng/ml) and synovial fluid (median 10.3 ng/ml, IQR 12.0 ng/ml) of RA patients (each P < 0.05) compared with the plasma (median 3.1 ng/ml, IQR 1.3 ng/ml) and synovial fluid (median 2.9 ng/ml, IQR 0.9 ng/ml) of patients with psoriatic arthritis and the plasma of healthy control subjects (median 2.9 ng/ml, IQR 0.9 ng/ml). Calreticulin concentrations in the synovial fluid correlated with the tender and swollen joint counts and the activity scores on the 28-joint Disease Activity Score assessment. Calreticulin also bound directly to FasL. In vitro, calreticulin (2-16 ng/ml) inhibited FasL-induced apoptosis of Jurkat T cells. CONCLUSION: Calreticulin was present at higher concentrations in the plasma and synovial fluid of RA patients. Calreticulin had the capacity to bind directly to FasL and to inhibit FasL-mediated apoptosis of Jurkat T cells, and thus might play a role in inhibiting apoptosis of inflammatory T cells in RA.

Destructive processing by asparagine endopeptidase limits presentation of a dominant T cell epitope in MBP.

Little is known about the processing of putative human autoantigens and why tolerance is established to some T cell epitopes but not others. Here we show that a principal human HLA-DR2-restricted epitope--amino acids 85-99 of myelin basic protein, MBP(85-99)--contains a processing site for the cysteine protease asparagine endopeptidase (AEP). Presentation of this epitope by human antigen-presenting cells is inversely proportional to the amount of cellular AEP activity: inhibition of AEP in living cells greatly enhances presentation of the MBP(85-99) epitope, whereas overexpression of AEP diminishes presentation. These results indicate that central tolerance to this encephalitogenic MBP epitope may not be established because destructive processing limits its display in the thymus. Consistent with this hypothesis, AEP is expressed abundantly in thymic antigen-presenting cells.