Parallel damage in mitochondria and lysosomes is an efficient way to photoinduce cell death.

Cells challenged by photosensitized oxidations face strong redox stresses and rely on autophagy to either survive or die. However, the use of macroautophagy/autophagy to improve the efficiency of photosensitizers, in terms of inducing cell death, remains unexplored. Here, we addressed the concept that a parallel damage in the membranes of mitochondria and lysosomes leads to a scenario of autophagy malfunction that can greatly improve the efficiency of the photosensitizer to cause cell death. Specific damage to these organelles was induced by irradiation of cells pretreated with 2 phenothiazinium salts, methylene blue (MB) and 1,9-dimethyl methylene blue (DMMB). At a low concentration level (10 nM), only DMMB could induce mitochondrial damage, leading to mitophagy activation, which did not progress to completion because of the parallel damage in lysosome, triggering cell death. MB-induced photodamage was perceived almost instantaneously after irradiation, in response to a massive and nonspecific oxidative stress at a higher concentration range (2 µM). We showed that the parallel damage in mitochondria and lysosomes activates and inhibits mitophagy, leading to a late and more efficient cell death, offering significant advantage (2 orders of magnitude) over photosensitizers that cause unspecific oxidative stress. We are confident that this concept can be used to develop better light-activated drugs. Abbreviations: ΔΨm: mitochondrial transmembrane inner potential; AAU: autophagy arbitrary units; ATG5, autophagy related 5; ATG7: autophagy related 7; BAF: bafilomycin A1; BSA: bovine serum albumin; CASP3: caspase 3; CF: carboxyfluorescein; CTSB: cathepsin B; CVS: crystal violet staining; DCF: dichlorofluorescein; DCFH2: 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein; DMMB: 1,9-dimethyl methylene blue; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; HaCaT: non-malignant immortal keratinocyte cell line from adult human skin; HP: hydrogen peroxide; LC3B-II: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta-II; LMP: lysosomal membrane permeabilization; LTG: LysoTracker™ Green DND-26; LTR: LysoTracker™ Red DND-99; 3-MA: 3-methyladenine; MB: methylene blue; mtDNA: mitochondrial DNA; MitoSOX™: red mitochondrial superoxide probe; MTDR: MitoTracker™ Deep Red FM; MTO: MitoTracker™ Orange CMTMRos; MT-ND1: mitochondrially encoded NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase core subunit 1; MTT: methylthiazolyldiphenyl-tetrazolium bromide; 1O2: singlet oxygen; OH. hydroxil radical; PRKN/parkin: parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin protein ligase; PBS: phosphate-buffered saline; PI: propidium iodide; PDT: photodynamic therapy; PS: photosensitizer; QPCR: gene-specific quantitative PCR-based; Rh123: rhodamine 123; ROS: reactive oxygen species RTN: rotenone; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; SUVs: small unilamellar vesicles; TBS: Tris-buffered saline.

Mechanism of Aloe Vera extract protection against UVA: shelter of lysosomal membrane avoids photodamage.

The premature aging (photoaging) of skin characterized by wrinkles, a leathery texture and mottled pigmentation is a well-documented consequence of exposure to sunlight. UVA is an important risk factor for human cancer also associated with induction of inflammation, immunosuppression, photoaging and melanogenesis. Although herbal compounds are commonly used as photoprotectants against the harmful effects of UVA, the mechanisms involved in the photodamage are not precisely known. In this study, we investigated the effects of Aloe Vera (Aloe barbadensis mil) on the protection against UVA-modulated cell killing of HaCaT keratinocytes. Aloe Vera exhibited the remarkable ability of reducing both in vitro and in vivo photodamage, even though it does not have anti-radical properties. Interestingly, the protection conferred by Aloe Vera was associated with the maintenance of membrane integrity in both mimetic membranes and intracellular organelles. The increased lysosomal stability led to a decrease in lipofuscinogenesis and cell death. This study explains why Aloe Vera extracts offer protection against photodamage at a cellular level in both the UV and visible spectra, leading to its beneficial use as a supplement in protective dermatological formulations.