Organic fertilizer substitution benefits microbial richness and wheat yield under warming.

Climate warming poses a serious threat to soil biodiversity and crop yield. Application of organic fertilizer has been extensively practiced to improve soil health and crop productivity. However, information is limited about the effects of organic fertilizer on microbial communities and diversity (richness) under warming. Thus, to investigate the interactive effects of temperature (ambient temperature and warming) and fertilizer (chemical fertilizer and partial substitution of chemical fertilizer with organic fertilizer) on microbial properties and wheat yield, a two-factorial pot experiment was conducted using soils with high and low fertility The results showed that warming and organic fertilizer had minor effects on bacterial Shannon and Simpson indexes. Due to concomitant reductions in soil moisture, warming decreased the average Chao index by 5.4 % and Ace index by 3.8 % for soils with high and low fertility (P < 0.05). High-throughput sequence presented that dominated genus was Bacillus with spore-forming ability. Under warming and drying conditions, microbes with adaptive traits (spore-forming ability) would outcompete the other microbes, and decrease microbial Chao and Ace index (richness). However, organic fertilizer counteracted the adverse effects of warming on microbial richness attributed to positive interaction between temperature and fertilizer on soil nutrients and organic carbon. The strong relationships between bacterial richness and wheat yield, as well as soil nutrients, highlighted the importance of soil biodiversity in improving soil nutrients and crop productivity. Partial substitution of chemical fertilizer with organic fertilizer significantly increased wheat yield by 27.1 % and 14.9 % under ambient temperature and by 28.0 % and 19.6 % under warming for soils with high and low fertility, respectively. Overall, this study provided the possibility to increase bacterial richness related to nutrient turnover and crop production by organic fertilizer application with reduced chemical fertilizer, especially under climate warming.

Carbon trade-off and energy budgeting under conventional and conservation tillage in a rice-wheat double cropping system.

Amid rising energy crises and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, designing energy efficient, GHG mitigation and profitable conservation farming strategies are pertinent for global food security. Therefore, we tested a hypothesis that no-till with residue retaining could improve energy productivity (EP) and energy use efficiency (EUE) while mitigating the carbon footprint (CF), water footprint (WF) and GHG emissions in rice-wheat double cropping system. We studied two tillage viz., conventional and conservation, with/without residue retaining, resulting as CT0 (puddled-transplanted rice, conventional wheat -residue), CTR (puddled-transplanted rice, conventional wheat + residue), NT0 (direct seeded rice, zero-till wheat -residue), and NTR (direct seeded rice, zero-till wheat + residue). The overall results showed that the NTR/NT0 had 34% less energy consumption and 1.2-time higher EP as compared to CTR/CT0. In addition, NTR increased 19.8% EUE than that of CT0. The grain yield ranged from 8.7 to 9.3 and 7.8-8.5 Mg ha-1 under CT and NT system, respectively. In NTR, CF and WF were 56.6% and 17.9% lower than that of CT0, respectively. The net GHG emissions were the highest (7261.4 kg CO2 ha-1 yr-1) under CT0 and lowest (4580.9 kg CO2 ha-1 yr-1) under NTR. Notably, the carbon sequestration under NTR could mitigate half of the system's CO2-eq emissions. The study results suggest that NTR could be a viable option to offset carbon emissions and water footprint by promoting soil organic carbon sequestration, and enhancing energy productivity and energy use efficiency in the South Asian Indo-Gangetic Plains.

Effects of tillage and cropping sequences on crop production and environmental benefits in the North China Plain.

The ever-increasing trend of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is accelerating global warming and threatening food security. Environmental benefits and sustainable food production must be pursued locally and globally. Thus, a field experiment was conducted in 2015 to understand how to balance the trade-offs between agronomic productivity and environment quality in the North China Plain (NCP). Eight treatments consisted of two factors, i.e., (1) tillage practices: rotary tillage (RT) and no-till (NT), and (2) cropping sequences (CS): maize-wheat-soybean-wheat (MWSW), soybean-wheat-maize-wheat (SWMW), soybean-wheat (SW), and maize-wheat (MW). The economic and environmental benefits were evaluated by multiple indicators including the carbon footprint (CF), maize equivalent economic yield (MEEY), energy yield (EY), and carbon sustainability index (CSI). Compared with NT, RT increased the EY and MEEY, but emitted 9.4% higher GHGs. Among different CSs, no significant reduction was observed in CF. The lowest (2.0 Mg CO2-eq ha-1 year-1) and the highest (5.6 Mg CO2-eq ha-1 year-1) CF values were observed under MW and SWMW, respectively. However, CSs with soybean enhanced MEEY and the net revenue due to their higher price compared to that of MW. Although the highest CSI was observed under RT-MW, soybean-based crop rotation could offset the decline in CSI under NT when compared to that for RT. These findings suggest that conservation agriculture (CA) could enhance the balance in trade-offs between economic and environmental benefits. Additional research is needed on how to achieve high crop production by establishing a highly efficient CA system in the NCP.

Soil organic carbon regulates CH4 production through methanogenic evenness and available phosphorus under different straw managements.

Methane (CH4) is the main greenhouse gas emitted from rice paddy fields driven by methanogens, for which methanogenic abundance on CH4 production has been intensively investigated. However, information is limited about the relationship between methanogenic diversity (e.g., richness and evenness) and CH4 production. Three independent field experiments with different straw managements including returning method, burial depth, and burial amount were used to identify the effects of methanogenic diversity on CH4 production, and its regulating factors from soil properties in a rice-wheat cropping system. The results showed that methanogenic evenness (dominance) can explain 23% of variations in CH4 production potential. CH4 production potential was positively related to methanogenic evenness (R2 = 0.310, p < 0.001), which is driven by soil organic carbon (SOC), available phosphorus (AP), and nitrate (NO3-) through structure equation model (SEM). These findings indicate that methanogenic evenness has a critical role in evaluating the responses of CH4 production to agricultural practices following changes in soil properties. The SEM also revealed that SOC concentration influenced CH4 production potential indirectly via complementarity of methanogenic evenness (dominance) and available phosphorus (AP). Increasing SOC accumulation improved AP release and stimulated CH4 production when SOC was at a low level, whereas decreased evenness and suppressed CH4 production when SOC was at a high level. A nonlinear relationship was detected between SOC and CH4 production potential, and CH4 production potential decreased when SOC was ≥14.16 g kg-1. Our results indicated that the higher SOC sequestration can not only mitigate CO2 emissions directly but CH4 emissions indirectly, highlighting the importance to enhance SOC sequestration using optimum agricultural practices in a rice-wheat cropping system.

Changes in cropland soil carbon through improved management practices in China: A meta-analysis.

Recommended management practices (RMPs, e.g., manuring, no-tillage, crop residue return) can increase soil organic carbon (SOC), reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and maintain soil health in croplands. However, there is no consensus on how RMPs affect the SOC storage potential of cropland soils for climate change mitigation. Here, based on 2301 comparisons from 158 peer-reviewed papers, a meta-analysis was conducted to explore management-induced SOC stock changes and their variations under different conditions. The results show that SOC stocks in the 0-20 cm layer were increased by 31.8% when chemical fertilization combined with manure application was compared with no fertilizer; 9.98% when no-tillage was compared with plow tillage; and 10.84% when straw return was compared with removal. The RMPs favorably increased SOC stock in arid areas, and in alkaline and fine-textured soils. Initial SOC, carbon-nitrogen ratio, and experimental duration could also affect SOC storage. Compared with the initial SOC stock, RMPs increased the SOC sequestration potential by 2.6-4.5% in the 0-20 cm soil depth, indicating that these practices can help China achieve targets to increase SOC by 4.0‰. Hence, it is essential to implement RMPs for climate change mitigation and soil fertility improvement.

Improving soil aggregates stability and soil organic carbon sequestration by no-till and legume-based crop rotations in the North China Plain.

Conservation agriculture (CA) has been adopted worldwide on about 200 Mha to enhance soil organic carbon (SOC) for mitigating climate change. However, as a crucial mechanism to sequester SOC, how the protection of aggregates responds to the interaction between no-till and crop rotations (two principles of CA) remains unknown. Thus, a field experiment with six treatments [e.g., no-till or rotary tillage under the maize-wheat-soybean-wheat system (NT-MWSW, RT-MWSW), no-till or rotary tillage under the maize-wheat system (NT-MW, RT-MW), and no-till or rotary tillage under the soybean-wheat system (NT-SW, RT-SW)] was conducted from June 2018 to June 2021 in the North China Plain (NCP) to assess their effects on aggregation and SOC. Results indicated that macroaggregates (> 0.25 mm) were the main contributors to the soil carbon (C) pool, comprised 64.7-87.3 % of aggregates, and encompassed 64.9-73.1 % of the SOC stock. NT increased not only the proportion of macroaggregates but also aggregate stability (i.e., mean weight diameter and geometric mean diameter). Significant positive effects from legumes were observed under NT. SW increased by 13.6 % macroaggregate-associated SOC under NT in 0-20 cm compared to that under MW. Additionally, the conversion rate of straw C input under NT-SW was higher than that in other treatments, augmenting it by 9.4-21.9 %. This may be attributed to the higher macroaggregate total nitrogen (increased by 1.7-15.9 %) in 0-10 cm under legume-based crop rotations compared to that under MW, resulting in lower C: N ratios, which promoted the decomposition of straw. Furthermore, the total potential mineralization of macroaggregates under NT legume-based crop rotations was 3.0-16.0 % higher than that of MW. Thus, a legume-based NT system can significantly improve soil macro-aggregation, increase the conversion rate of straw C input, and reduce C loss, which can be a viable practice to enhance SOC sequestration capacity under CA in the NCP.

Impacts of the components of conservation agriculture on soil organic carbon and total nitrogen storage: A global meta-analysis.

Conservation agriculture (CA) can be an important strategy for improving soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN). Numerous studies have examined SOC and TN dynamics in different cropping systems. However, there is some uncertainty regarding the relative impacts of some CA practices, and it is not always clear how other agricultural management, particularly nitrogen addition, interacts with these practices to influence SOC and TN sequestration. Thus, we conducted a global meta-analysis of 752 comparisons from 97 papers to analyze the impacts of nitrogen fertilizers and CA practices (namely crop diversification, minimal soil disturbance (no-tillage) and permanent soil cover), on SOC and TN content worldwide. Overall, our study showed the most significant increase of SOC [21.39 % (CI = 15.16 to 28.64)] and TN [54.34 % (CI = 26.19 to 96.69)] stock with CA practices compared to conventional practices in the 0-15 cm soil depth. It also showed a significant increase in SOC and TN stock with all the individual components of CA compared to conventional practices in the 0-15 cm soil depth. However, the impact of CA on SOC and TN is reduced in 0-60 cm depths compared to surface soil depths due to the limited input of crop residue deeper in the soil profile. Manure and manure mixed with mineral-N led to greater SOC sequestration [20.67 % (CI = 15.23 to 27.10) and 41.67 % (CI = 31.03 to 52.79), respectively] than mineral-N alone [9.08 % (CI = 6.44 to 11.83)]. Cropping systems that included legume residue decreased the C/N ratio. This highlights that adequate mineral-N fertilizer addition may also be required in conjunction with residue retention practices to improve SOC and TN content. Overall, these results show that CA systems that include legume residue and manure mixed with mineral-N have great potential to increase SOC and TN, particularly at 0-15 cm and 0-30 cm soil depth.

Integrated application of plant bioregulator and micronutrients improves crop physiology, productivity and grain biofortification of delayed sown wheat.

Delay sowing of wheat is a common problem in Punjab that exacerbates serious yield loss. To reduce yield loss and improve yield, different combinations of foliar-applied bioregulator and micronutrients, control (CK), zinc (Zn), boron (B), thiourea (TU), Zn + B (ZnB), Zn + TU (ZnTU), B + TU (BTU), Zn + B + TU (ZnBTU) were applied at booting and grain filling stages in delayed sown wheat in 2017-18 and 2018-19. The results showed that ZnBTU treatment significantly increased leaf area index by 25.06% and 23.21%, spike length by 15.11% and 19.65% in 2017 and 2018, respectively, compared to CK. The ZnBTU treatment also increased 1000-grain weight by 21.96% and 22.01% in 2017 and 2018, respectively, compared to CK. Similarly, higher Zn, B and N contents in straw and grain were recoded for ZnBTU treatment which was statistically similar to ZnB and ZnTU treatments. Overall, ZnBTU treatment also increased the photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, stomatal conductance by 46.67%, 26.03%, 76.25% and decreased internal CO2 by 28.18%, compared to CK, respectively. Moreover, ZnBTU also recorded the highest grain yield in 2017-18 (25.05%) and 2018-19 (28.49%) than CK. In conclusion, foliar application of ZnBTU at the booting and grain filling stages of delayed sown wheat could be a promising strategy to increase grain yield.

Biochar application for the remediation of trace metals in contaminated soils: Implications for stress tolerance and crop production.

In modern agriculture and globalization, the release of trace metals from manufacturing effluents hinders crop productivity by polluting the atmosphere and degrading food quality. Sustaining food safety in polluted soils is critical to ensure global food demands. This review describes the negative effects of trace metals stress on plant growth, physiology, and yield. Furthermore, also explains the potential of biochar in the remediation of trace metal's contaminations in plants by adoption of various mechanisms such as reduction, ion exchange, electrostatic forces of attraction, precipitation, and complexation. Biochar application enhances the overall productivity, accumulation of biomass, and photosynthetic activity of plants through the regulation of various biochemical and physiological mechanisms of plants cultivated under trace metals contaminated soil. Moreover, biochar scavenges the formation of reactive oxygen species, by activating antioxidant enzyme production i.e., ascorbate peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, etc. The application of biochar also improves the synthesis of stressed proteins and proline contents in plants thus maintaining the osmoprotectant and osmotic potential of the plant under contaminates stress. Integrated application of biochar with other amendments i.e., microorganisms and plant nutrients to improve trace metal remediation potential of biochar and improving crop production was also highlighted in this review. Moreover, future research needs regarding the application of biochar have also been addressed.

Greenhouse gas emissions from the wheat-maize cropping system under different tillage and crop residue management practices in the North China Plain.

With increasing attention being placed on mitigating global warming and achieving agricultural sustainable intensification, conservation agriculture practices have gradually been implemented in the North China Plain (NCP). However, there are still knowledge gaps on the effects of conservation practices on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in this area. In this study, a four-year field experiment was conducted from 2014 to 2018 to assess the effects of tillage and crop residue management practices on the emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4). Subsequently, crop yields, area-scaled and yield-scaled total non-carbon dioxide (CO2) GHG emissions were assessed. Our research found that no-till (NT) decreased N2O emissions by 22.6% compared with conventional tillage (CT) in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seasons, but there was no difference between tillage practices in summer maize (Zea mays L.) seasons. Crop residue retention practice (+R) increased N2O emissions by 28.1% and 26.7% compared with residue removal practice (-R) in winter wheat and summer maize seasons, respectively. The NT soils took up more CH4 compared with the CT soils in summer maize seasons. Area-scaled total non-CO2 GHG emissions showed trends similar to those of N2O emission. Since crop residue retention improved the maize yield compared with the residue removal treatments, yield-scaled total non-CO2 GHGs emission did not differ between residue management practices in summer maize seasons. Our four-year field measurements indicated that no-till practice could be more useful as an option to mitigate non-CO2 GHG emissions in the wheat - maize cropping system.

Potassium fertilization improves growth, yield and seed quality of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) under drought stress at different growth stages.

Water scarcity is a major concern for sunflower production in the semi-arid and arid regions of the world. Potassium (K) application has been found effective to alleviate the influence of drought stress; however, the impact of drought stress on seed quality of sunflower has not been reported frequently. Therefore, a field experiment was performed to determine the optimum K requirement for mitigating the adverse effects of water stress and improving growth and seed quality of spring-planted sunflower. Sunflower plants were exposed to water stress at different growth stages, i.e., Io = no stress (normal irrigation), I1 = pre-anthesisi stress (irrigation skipped at pre-anthesis stage), I2 = anthesis stress (irrigation skipped at anthesis stage) and I3 = post-anthesis stress (irrigation skipped at post-anthesis stage). Potassium was applied at four different rates, i.e., Ko = 0, K1 = 50, K2 = 100 and K3 = 150 kg ha-1. The results revealed that water stress at pre- and post-anthesis stages significantly reduced plant height, head diameter, number of achenes, oleic acid contents, and phosphorus (P) uptake. However, pre-anthesis stress improved linoleic acid contents. Treatment IoK3 (stress-free with 150 kg ha-1 K) was optimum combination for 1000-achene weight, biological and achene yields, oil contents, protein contents, and N and P uptake. Results indicated that a higher amount of K and irrigation resulted in higher yield, whereas yield and yield components decreased with early-stage water stress. Nevertheless, potassium application lowered the impacts of waters stress compared to no application. Keeping in view these results, it is recommended that sunflower must be supplied 150 kg ha-1 K in arid and semi-arid regions to achieve higher yield and better seed quality.

Integrated Application of Thiourea and Biochar Improves Maize Growth, Antioxidant Activity and Reduces Cadmium Bioavailability in Cadmium-Contaminated Soil.

Cadmium (Cd) contamination of croplands jeopardizes sustainable crop production and human health. However, curtailing Cd transfer and mobility in the rhizosphere-plant system is challenging. Sole application of biochar (BC) and thiourea (TU) has been reported to restrain Cd toxicity and uptake in plants. However, the combined applications of BC and TU in mitigating the harmful effects of Cd on plants have not yet been thoroughly investigated. Therefore, this study attempts to explore the integrated impact of three maize stalk BC application rates [B 0 (0% w/w), B 1 (2.5% w/w), and B 2 (5% w/w)] and three TU foliar application rates [T 0 (0 mg L-1), T 1 (600 mg L-1), and T 2 (1,200 mg L-1)] in remediating the adverse effects of Cd on maize growth, development, and physiology. Results demonstrated that Cd concentration in soil inhibited plant growth by reducing leaf area, photosynthesis activity, and enhanced oxidative stress in maize. Nevertheless, BC and TU application in combination (B 2 T 2) improved the fresh biomass, shoot height, leaf area, and photosynthesis rate of maize plants by 27, 42, 36, and 15%, respectively, compared with control (B 0 T 0). Additionally, the oxidative stress values [malondialdehyde (MDA), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and electrolyte leakage (EL)] were minimized by 26, 20, and 21%, respectively, under B 2 T 2 as compared with B 0 T 0. Antioxidant enzyme activities [superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT)] were 81 and 58%, respectively, higher in B 2 T 2 than in B 0 T 0. Besides, the shoot and root Cd concentrations were decreased by 42 and 49%, respectively, under B 2 T 2 compared with B 0 T 0. The recent study showed that the integrated effects of BC and TU have significant potential to improve the growth of maize on Cd-contaminated soil by reducing Cd content in plant organs (shoots and roots).

Dynamics in soil organic carbon of wheat-maize dominant cropping system in the North China Plain under tillage and residue management.

A site experiment was conducted to assess temporal dynamics of soil organic carbon (SOC) and the drivers under no-tillage (NT) and residue retention (RR) in the North China Plain (NCP). The results indicated that NT and RR can significantly increase SOC up to a depth of 30 cm. On average, NT increased SOC by 8.1-34.5% compared with PT, and RR increased SOC by 3.5-14.4% compared with R0 at 0-10 cm. Increases in SOC under NT or RR could be increased by 4-10 percentage points through the significantly positive interactions of NT and RR. Among the sources of SOC variations, tillage-induced variations accounted for 74.4 and 44.3% of the total variations in SOC at 0-5 cm for wheat and maize season, respectively. Experimental duration was also a significant source of variation. Stepwise regression indicated dynamics in SOC at 0-5 cm mainly due to the positive effects of precipitation, the negative effects of soil bulk density for the wheat season, the negative effects of radiation for the maize season, and antagonistic effects of temperature between wheat and maize season. Generally, positive effects of NT and RR on SOC were both confirmed, but fluctuations and variations induced by interactions of practices and seasonal climatic conditions were also significant in the NCP.