Preterm Delivery in Obese Mothers Predicts Tumor Necrosis Factor-α Levels in Breast Milk.

Background: Breast milk (BM) is a nutritive fluid that is rich in bioactive components such as hormones and cytokines that can shape the newborn's feeding habits and program the newborn's immature immune system. BM components can change under different scenarios that include maternal body mass index (BMI) and premature birth. This study aimed to study the interaction of premature status or maternal obesity on the hormonal and cytokine profile in BM according to the sex of the offspring. Materials and Methods: We recruited 31 women with preterm births from the Centro de Alta Especialidad Dr. Rafael Lucio in Mexico. Luminex multiplexing assay was used for quantifying cytokine profile of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon-γ, interleukin (IL)1-ß, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-7, and hormones insulin, ghrelin, leptin, and glucagon in mature BM samples. Biological modeling was performed to predict the interaction between cytokines and hormones, maternal BMI status, infant birth sex, parity, and gestational age. Results: BM multiplex analysis showed positive correlations for TNF-α and increasing prematurity and for higher maternal BMI and IL-2, IL-4, and IL-6 cytokines. Multiple regression models identified an interaction between maternal BMI and gestational weeks in male infants that is associated to TNF-α accumulation in BM. Biological modeling predicts that preterm delivery in mothers with obesity modulates TNF- α levels in mature BM of women with male offspring. Conclusion: Prematurity and obesity modify BM's immune profile. TNF- α expression increases as prematurity increases, and maternal BMI correlates positively with increases in IL-2, IL-6, and IL-4. Our multiple regression model also shows that maternal BMI and gestational weeks in male infants predict TNF-α.

Los estados hematológico y nutricional se asocian con el desarrollo de preeclampsia en una población mexicana / Hematologic and nutritional states are associated with the development of preeclampsia in a Mexican population

Introducción: la insuficiencia de nutrientes y elementos traza son factores de riesgo para el desarrollo de preeclampsia; estos nutrientes pueden provocar cambios en el estado hematológico que pueden usarse para la prevención de complicaciones durante la gestación. Objetivo: la presente investigación analizará el estado nutrimental y hematológico durante los 3 trimestres de gestación en mujeres gestantes con preeclampsia para evaluar su relación con esta alteración gestacional. Método: se realizó un estudio transversal, descriptivo y analítico en 78 gestantes que acudían a control prenatal, 11 de ellas diagnosticadas de preeclampsia. Los parámetros hematológicos fueron determinados por cartometría hemática. Se aplicó un cuestionario de frecuencia de consumo de alimentos para obtener el perfil de ingesta de nutrientes de las gestantes. Resultados: la presión arterial (PA) del grupo de normotensas fue significativamente menor en comparación con las gestantes con preeclampsia. El perfil hematológico varía durante la gestación y el valor de plaquetas fue significativamente más alto en las gestantes con preeclampsia. El estado nutrimental de las gestantes en el tercer trimestre tuvo mayor consumo de macronutrientes y micronutrientes comparado con el primero y el segundo trimestres de gestación; este mismo patrón se observó en las gestantes con preeclampsia. Las gestantes normotensas tuvieron un mayor aporte de minerales y de vitaminas con respecto a las gestantes con preeclampsia. Conclusión: los valores hematológicos se modifican durante cada trimestre de gestación. Las gestantes con preeclampsia tuvieron valores altos de plaquetas comparadas con las normotensas. Nuestros datos muestran un mayor aporte de minerales y vitaminas en las gestantes normotensas comparadas con aquellas que han desarrollado preeclampsia, por lo que se recomienda que la atención de las gestantes se acompañe de orientación nutrimental para prevenir complicaciones. (AU)

Introduction: nutrient and trace element deficiency are risk factors for the development of preeclampsia; these nutrients induce changes in the hematologic state, which can be used to prevent complications during pregnancy.Objective: this research will analyze the nutritional and hematological status during the 3 trimesters of gestation in pregnant women with preeclampsia to evaluate its association with gestational alterations.Method: a cross-sectional, descriptive, and analytic study was conducted on 78 pregnant women who attended a prenatal control clinic, 11 of whom were diagnosed with preeclampsia. The hematological parameters were determined through hematometry. To get the nutritional intake profile of the pregnant women, a frequency of food consumption questionnaire was used.Results: the normotensive group´s arterial pressure (PA) was significantly lower than that of pregnant women with preeclampsia. The hematological profile changed during pregnancy, and platelet value was much higher in preeclamptic women. The nutritional status of pregnant women in the third trimester consumed more macronutrients and micronutrients than in the first and second trimesters, and this pattern was observed in pregnant women with preeclampsia. When compared to pregnant women with preeclampsia, normotensive women received more minerals and vitamins.Conclusion: hematological values are modified during each trimester of gestation, and pregnant women with preeclampsia had high platelet values compared to normotensive women. Our data show a greater intake of minerals and vitamins in normotensive pregnant women as compared to those who developed preeclampsia; therefore, it is recommended that pregnant women be provided with nutritional guidance in order to prevent pregnant complications. (AU)

[Hematologic and nutritional states are associated with the development of preeclampsia in a Mexican population]. / Los estados hematológico y nutricional se asocian con el desarrollo de preeclampsia en una población mexicana.

Introduction: Introduction: nutrient and trace element deficiency are risk factors for the development of preeclampsia; these nutrients induce changes in the hematologic state, which can be used to prevent complications during pregnancy. Objective: this research will analyze the nutritional and hematological status during the 3 trimesters of gestation in pregnant women with preeclampsia to evaluate its association with gestational alterations. Method: a cross-sectional, descriptive, and analytic study was conducted on 78 pregnant women who attended a prenatal control clinic, 11 of whom were diagnosed with preeclampsia. The hematological parameters were determined through hematometry. To get the nutritional intake profile of the pregnant women, a frequency of food consumption questionnaire was used. Results: the normotensive group´s arterial pressure (PA) was significantly lower than that of pregnant women with preeclampsia. The hematological profile changed during pregnancy, and platelet value was much higher in preeclamptic women. The nutritional status of pregnant women in the third trimester consumed more macronutrients and micronutrients than in the first and second trimesters, and this pattern was observed in pregnant women with preeclampsia. When compared to pregnant women with preeclampsia, normotensive women received more minerals and vitamins. Conclusion: hematological values are modified during each trimester of gestation, and pregnant women with preeclampsia had high platelet values compared to normotensive women. Our data show a greater intake of minerals and vitamins in normotensive pregnant women as compared to those who developed preeclampsia; therefore, it is recommended that pregnant women be provided with nutritional guidance in order to prevent pregnant complications.

Introducción: Introducción: la insuficiencia de nutrientes y elementos traza son factores de riesgo para el desarrollo de preeclampsia; estos nutrientes pueden provocar cambios en el estado hematológico que pueden usarse para la prevención de complicaciones durante la gestación. Objetivo: la presente investigación analizará el estado nutrimental y hematológico durante los 3 trimestres de gestación en mujeres gestantes con preeclampsia para evaluar su relación con esta alteración gestacional. Método: se realizó un estudio transversal, descriptivo y analítico en 78 gestantes que acudían a control prenatal, 11 de ellas diagnosticadas de preeclampsia. Los parámetros hematológicos fueron determinados por cartometría hemática. Se aplicó un cuestionario de frecuencia de consumo de alimentos para obtener el perfil de ingesta de nutrientes de las gestantes. Resultados: la presión arterial (PA) del grupo de normotensas fue significativamente menor en comparación con las gestantes con preeclampsia. El perfil hematológico varía durante la gestación y el valor de plaquetas fue significativamente más alto en las gestantes con preeclampsia. El estado nutrimental de las gestantes en el tercer trimestre tuvo mayor consumo de macronutrientes y micronutrientes comparado con el primero y el segundo trimestres de gestación; este mismo patrón se observó en las gestantes con preeclampsia. Las gestantes normotensas tuvieron un mayor aporte de minerales y de vitaminas con respecto a las gestantes con preeclampsia. Conclusión: los valores hematológicos se modifican durante cada trimestre de gestación. Las gestantes con preeclampsia tuvieron valores altos de plaquetas comparadas con las normotensas. Nuestros datos muestran un mayor aporte de minerales y vitaminas en las gestantes normotensas comparadas con aquellas que han desarrollado preeclampsia, por lo que se recomienda que la atención de las gestantes se acompañe de orientación nutrimental para prevenir complicaciones.

Transgenerational Susceptibility to Food Addiction-Like Behavior in Rats Associates to a Decrease of the Anti-Inflammatory IL-10 in Plasma.

Maternal nutritional programming by energy-dense foods leads to the transgenerational heritance of addiction-like behavior. Exposure to energy-dense foods also activates systemic and central inflammation in the offspring. This study aimed to characterize pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine profiles in blood and their correlation to the transgenerational heritance of the addiction-like behavior in rats. F1 offspring of male Wistar diagnosed with addiction-like behavior were mated with virgin females to generate the F2 and the F3 offspring, respectively. Diagnosis of addiction-like behavior was performed by the operant training schedule (FR1, FR5 and PR) and pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine profiles in blood were measured by multiplex platform. Multiple linear models between behavior, fetal programming by diet and pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine profiles were performed. We found that the addiction-like behavior found in the F1 male offspring exposed to energy-dense food (cafeteria, CAF) diet during fetal programing is transgenerational inherited to the F2 and F3 generations. Blood from addiction-like behavior subjects of F2 and F3 generations exposed to CAF diet during maternal programming showed decrease in the anti-inflammatory IL-10 in the plasma. Conversely, decreased levels of the pro-inflammatory MCP-1 was identified in non-addiction-like subjects. No changes were found in plasmatic TNF-α levels in the F2 and F3 offspring of non-addiction-like and addiction-like subjects. Finally, biological modeling between IL-10 or MCP-1 plasma levels and prenatal diet exposure on operant training responses confirmed an association of decreased IL-10 levels on addiction-like behavior in the F2 and F3 generations. Globally, we identified decreased anti-inflammatory IL-10 cytokine in the blood of F2 and F3 offspring subjects diagnosed with addiction-like behavior for food rewards.

Breast Milk and the Importance of Chrononutrition.

During pregnancy the human fetus receives timed cues from the circadian rhythms of temperature, metabolites, and hormones from the mother. This influence is interrupted after parturition, the infant does not secrete melatonin and their circadian rhythms are still immature. However, evolution provided the solution to this problem. The newborn can continue receiving the mother's timed cues through breastmilk. Colostrum, transitional, and mature human milk are extraordinary complex biofluids that besides nutrients, contain an array of other non-nutritive components. Upon birth the first milk, colostrum, is rich in bioactive, immunological factors, and in complex oligosaccharides which help the proper establishment of the microbiome in the gut, which is crucial for the infants' health. Hormones, such as glucocorticoids and melatonin, transfer from the mother's plasma to milk, and then the infant is exposed to circadian cues from their mother. Also, milk components of fat, proteins, amino acids, and endogenous cannabinoids, among others, have a markedly different concentration between day and night. In the present review, we give an overview of nutritive and non-nutritive components and their daily rhythms in human milk and explore their physiological importance for the infant. Finally, we highlight some interventions with a circadian approach that emphasize the importance of circadian rhythms in the newborn for their survival, proper growth, and development. It is estimated that ~600,000 deaths/year are due to suboptimal breastfeeding. It is advisable to increase the rate of exclusive breastfeeding, during the day and night, as was established by the evolution of our species.

Encapsulation of Lactobacillus gasseri: Characterization, Probiotic Survival, In Vitro Evaluation and Viability in Apple Juice.

The development of functional foods containing probiotic bacteria has become increasingly relevant to improve and maintain health. However, this is often limited to dairy food matrices given the complexity involved in maintaining a stable system together with high microbial viability in matrices such as juices. The objective of this study was to develop and characterize sodium alginate capsules loaded with Lactobacillus gasseri ATCC® 19992 ™ (LG). Cell viability under in vitro gastrointestinal conditions and during storage in apple juice were evaluated. The capsules were prepared by ionic gelation and an emulsification process was performed as pretreatment using two homogenization methods: magnetic stirring (AM) and Ultraturrax® rotor-stator homogenizer (UT). Cell viability after encapsulation was similar in the two processes: 65%. At the end of the in vitro gastrointestinal evaluation, the non-encapsulated probiotic cells did not show any viability, while the AM system was able to retain 100% of its viability and the UT retained 79.14%. The morphology of the capsules consisted of a continuous and homogeneous surface. Cell viability of LG encapsulated in apple juice stored at 4 °C for 21 days was 77% for AM, 55.43% for UT, and 63.10% for free LG.

Breastfeeding Contributes to Physiological Immune Programming in the Newborn.

The first 1,000 days in the life of a human being are a vulnerable stage where early stimuli may program adverse health outcomes in future life. Proper maternal nutrition before and during pregnancy modulates the development of the fetus, a physiological process known as fetal programming. Defective programming promotes non-communicable chronic diseases in the newborn which might be prevented by postnatal interventions such as breastfeeding. Breast milk provides distinct bioactive molecules that contribute to immune maturation, organ development, and healthy microbial gut colonization, and also secures a proper immunological response that protects against infection and inflammation in the newborn. The gut microbiome provides the most critical immune microbial stimulation in the newborn in early life, allowing a well-trained immune system and efficient metabolic settings in healthy subjects. Conversely, negative fetal programming by exposing mothers to diets rich in fat and sugar has profound effects on breast milk composition and alters the immune profiles in the newborn. At this new stage, newborns become vulnerable to immune compromise, favoring susceptibility to defective microbial gut colonization and immune response. This review will focus on the importance of breastfeeding and its immunological biocomponents that allow physiological immune programming in the newborn. We will highlight the importance of immunological settings by breastfeeding, allowing proper microbial gut colonization in the newborn as a window of opportunity to secure effective immunological response.

Lower Protein Intake Supports Normal Growth of Full-Term Infants Fed Formula: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Infant formulas have been conventionally prepared with an excess of total protein in order to provide sufficient amounts of essential amino acids to the rapidly growing infant. However, this practice leads to higher than necessary protein intake during early infant development, inducing accelerated growth patterns correlated with the development of chronic diseases later in life. This study was aimed at assessing the safety of an infant formula enriched with bovine alpha-lactalbumin containing a total protein concentration very close to that of human milk, and determining its efficacy in the support of healthy infant growth from the first month to the fourth month of age. Healthy full-term infants ≤40 days of age were randomized in this controlled single blind trial to one of the following infant formulas: IF 1 (containing 1.0 g protein/dL; n = 30), IF 2 (containing 1.3 g protein/dL; n = 24), and IF 3 (containing 1.5 g protein/dL; n = 42). A control group consisting of exclusively breastfed infants (HM; n = 212) was included in the study. Anthropometric measurements and Z-scores were evaluated at baseline, at 1 month of age, and at 4 months of age. Weight gain (g/day) was similar in the IF 1 and the HM groups (p = 0.644), and it was significantly greater in the IF 2 and IF 3 groups than in the HM group. Growth patterns in both breastfed or IF-fed infants were in accordance with the World Health Organization (WHO) growth standards. At four months of age, the mean weight-for-age Z-score (WAZ) adjusted for initial value in the IF 1 group was similar to that of the HM group and significantly lower than that of the IF 2 and IF 3 groups (p = 0.031 and p = 0.014 for IF 2 and IF 3, respectively). Length-for-age (LAZ) adjusted for initial value was similar among all groups at four months of age. From 1 to 4 months of life, IF 1 containing 1.0 g protein/dL promotes growth and weight gain similar to those observed in exclusively breastfed infants. As this is a first approach to studying an IF containing total protein in a level below that recommended by international committees on nutrition, further investigations are needed to support these findings evaluating infant’s metabolic profile and growth in the long term.