Ets-1 transcription factor regulates glial cell regeneration and function in planarians.

Glia play multifaceted roles in nervous systems in response to injury. Depending on the species, extent of injury and glial cell type in question, glia can help or hinder the regeneration of neurons. Studying glia in the context of successful regeneration could reveal features of pro-regenerative glia that could be exploited for new human therapies. Planarian flatworms completely regenerate their nervous systems after injury - including glia - and thus provide a strong model system for exploring glia in the context of regeneration. Here, we report that planarian glia regenerate after neurons, and that neurons are required for correct glial numbers and localization during regeneration. We also identify the planarian transcription factor-encoding gene ets-1 as a key regulator of glial cell maintenance and regeneration. Using ets-1 (RNAi) to perturb glia, we show that glial loss is associated with altered neuronal gene expression, impeded animal movement and impaired nervous system architecture - particularly within the neuropil. Importantly, our work reveals the inter-relationships of glia and neurons in the context of robust neural regeneration.

Myelination induces axonal hotspots of synaptic vesicle fusion that promote sheath growth.

Myelination of axons by oligodendrocytes enables fast saltatory conduction. Oligodendrocytes are responsive to neuronal activity, which has been shown to induce changes to myelin sheaths, potentially to optimize conduction and neural circuit function. However, the cellular bases of activity-regulated myelination in vivo are unclear, partly due to the difficulty of analyzing individual myelinated axons over time. Activity-regulated myelination occurs in specific neuronal subtypes and can be mediated by synaptic vesicle fusion, but several questions remain: it is unclear whether vesicular fusion occurs stochastically along axons or in discrete hotspots during myelination and whether vesicular fusion regulates myelin targeting, formation, and/or growth. It is also unclear why some neurons, but not others, exhibit activity-regulated myelination. Here, we imaged synaptic vesicle fusion in individual neurons in living zebrafish and documented robust vesicular fusion along axons during myelination. Surprisingly, we found that axonal vesicular fusion increased upon and required myelination. We found that axonal vesicular fusion was enriched in hotspots, namely the heminodal non-myelinated domains into which sheaths grew. Blocking vesicular fusion reduced the stable formation and growth of myelin sheaths, and chemogenetically stimulating neuronal activity promoted sheath growth. Finally, we observed high levels of axonal vesicular fusion only in neuronal subtypes that exhibit activity-regulated myelination. Our results identify a novel "feedforward" mechanism whereby the process of myelination promotes the neuronal activity-regulated signal, vesicular fusion that, in turn, consolidates sheath growth along specific axons selected for myelination.

PCP and Wnt pathway components act in parallel during zebrafish mechanosensory hair cell orientation.

Planar cell polarity (PCP) plays crucial roles in developmental processes such as gastrulation, neural tube closure and hearing. Wnt pathway mutants are often classified as PCP mutants due to similarities between their phenotypes. Here, we show that in the zebrafish lateral line, disruptions of the PCP and Wnt pathways have differential effects on hair cell orientations. While mutations in the PCP genes vangl2 and scrib cause random orientations of hair cells, mutations in wnt11f1, gpc4 and fzd7a/b induce hair cells to adopt a concentric pattern. This concentric pattern is not caused by defects in PCP but is due to misaligned support cells. The molecular basis of the support cell defect is unknown but we demonstrate that the PCP and Wnt pathways work in parallel to establish proper hair cell orientation. Consequently, hair cell orientation defects are not solely explained by defects in PCP signaling, and some hair cell phenotypes warrant re-evaluation.

Adenosine receptor expression in the adult zebrafish retina.

Adenosine is an endogenous nucleoside in the central nervous system that acts on adenosine receptors. These are G protein-coupled receptors that have four known subtypes: A1, A2A, A2B, and A3 receptors. In the present study, we aimed to map the location of the adenosine receptor subtypes in adult wild-type zebrafish retina using in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. A1R, A2AR, and A2BR mRNA were detected in the ganglion cell layer (GCL), the inner nuclear layer (INL), the outer nuclear layer (ONL), and the outer segment (OS). A3R mRNA was detected in the GCL, ONL, and OS. A1R-immunoreactivity was expressed as puncta in the INL and in the outer plexiform layer (OPL). A1Rs were located within the cone pedicle and contiguous to horizontal cell tips in the OPL. A2AR-immunoreactivity was expressed as puncta in the GCL, inner plexiform layer (IPL), INL, and outer retina. A2AR puncta in the outer retina were situated around the ellipsoids and nuclei of cones, and weakly around the rod nuclei. A1Rs and A2ARs were clustered around ON cone bipolar cell terminals and present in the OFF lamina of the INL but were not expressed on mixed rod/cone response bipolar cell terminals. A2BR-immunoreactivity was mainly localized to the Müller cells, while A3Rs were found to be expressed in retinal ganglion cells of the GCL, INL, ONL, and OS. In summary, all four adenosine receptor subtypes were localized in the zebrafish retina and are in agreement with expression patterns shown in retinas from other species.

Individual Neuronal Subtypes Exhibit Diversity in CNS Myelination Mediated by Synaptic Vesicle Release.

Regulation of myelination by oligodendrocytes in the CNS has important consequences for higher-order nervous system function (e.g., [1-4]), and there is growing consensus that neuronal activity regulates CNS myelination (e.g., [5-9]) through local axon-oligodendrocyte synaptic-vesicle-release-mediated signaling [10-12]. Recent analyses have indicated that myelination along axons of distinct neuronal subtypes can differ [13, 14], but it is not known whether regulation of myelination by activity is common to all neuronal subtypes or only some. This limits insight into how specific neurons regulate their own conduction. Here, we use a novel fluorescent fusion protein reporter to study myelination along the axons of distinct neuronal subtypes over time in zebrafish. We find that the axons of reticulospinal and commissural primary ascending (CoPA) neurons are among the first myelinated in the zebrafish CNS. To investigate how activity regulates myelination by different neuronal subtypes, we express tetanus toxin (TeNT) in individual reticulospinal or CoPA neurons to prevent synaptic vesicle release. We find that the axons of individual tetanus toxin expressing reticulospinal neurons have fewer myelin sheaths than controls and that their myelin sheaths are 50% shorter than controls. In stark contrast, myelination along tetanus-toxin-expressing CoPA neuron axons is entirely normal. These results indicate that while some neuronal subtypes modulate myelination by synaptic vesicle release to a striking degree in vivo, others do not. These data have implications for our understanding of how different neurons regulate myelination and thus their own function within specific neuronal circuits.

Mutation of sec63 in zebrafish causes defects in myelinated axons and liver pathology.

Mutations in SEC63 cause polycystic liver disease in humans. Sec63 is a member of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) translocon machinery, although it is unclear how mutations in SEC63 lead to liver cyst formation in humans. Here, we report the identification and characterization of a zebrafish sec63 mutant, which was discovered in a screen for mutations that affect the development of myelinated axons. Accordingly, we show that disruption of sec63 in zebrafish leads to abnormalities in myelinating glia in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. In the vertebrate nervous system, segments of myelin are separated by the nodes of Ranvier, which are unmyelinated regions of axonal membrane containing a high density of voltage-gated sodium channels. We show that sec63 mutants have morphologically abnormal and reduced numbers of clusters of voltage-gated sodium channels in the spinal cord and along peripheral nerves. Additionally, we observed reduced myelination in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, as well as swollen ER in myelinating glia. Markers of ER stress are upregulated in sec63 mutants. Finally, we show that sec63 mutants develop liver pathology. As in glia, the primary defect, detectable at 5 dpf, is fragmentation and swelling of the ER, indicative of accumulation of proteins in the lumen. At 8 dpf, ER swelling is severe; other pathological features include disrupted bile canaliculi, altered cytoplasmic matrix and accumulation of large lysosomes. Together, our analyses of sec63 mutant zebrafish highlight the possible role of ER stress in polycystic liver disease and suggest that these mutants will serve as a model for understanding the pathophysiology of this disease and other abnormalities involving ER stress.

DNA demethylase activity maintains intestinal cells in an undifferentiated state following loss of APC.

Although genome-wide hypomethylation is a hallmark of many cancers, roles for active DNA demethylation during tumorigenesis are unknown. Here, loss of the APC tumor suppressor gene causes upregulation of a DNA demethylase system and the concomitant hypomethylation of key intestinal cell fating genes. Notably, this hypomethylation maintained zebrafish intestinal cells in an undifferentiated state that was released upon knockdown of demethylase components. Mechanistically, the demethylase genes are directly activated by Pou5f1 and Cebpß and are indirectly repressed by retinoic acid, which antagonizes Pou5f1 and Cebpß. Apc mutants lack retinoic acid as a result of the transcriptional repression of retinol dehydrogenase l1 via a complex that includes Lef1, Groucho2, Ctbp1, Lsd1, and Corest. Our findings imply a model wherein APC controls intestinal cell fating through a switch in DNA methylation dynamics. Wild-type APC and retinoic acid downregulate demethylase components, thereby promoting DNA methylation of key genes and helping progenitors commit to differentiation.

Schwann cells inhibit ectopic clustering of axonal sodium channels.

The clustering of voltage-gated sodium channels at the axon initial segment (AIS) and nodes of Ranvier is essential for the initiation and propagation of action potentials in myelinated axons. Sodium channels localize to the AIS through an axon-intrinsic mechanism driven by ankyrin G, while clustering at the nodes requires cues from myelinating glia that interact with axonal neurofascin186 (Sherman et al., 2005; Dzhashiashvili et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2007). Here, we report that in zebrafish mutants lacking Schwann cells in peripheral nerves (erbb2, erbb3, and sox10/colorless), axons form numerous aberrant sodium channel clusters throughout their length. Morpholino knockdown of ankyrin G, but not neurofascin, reduces the number of sodium channel clusters in Schwann cell-deficient mutants, suggesting that these aberrant clusters form by an axon-intrinsic mechanism. We also find that gpr126 mutants, in which Schwann cells are arrested at the promyelinating stage (Monk et al., 2009), are deficient in the clustering of neurofascin at the nodes of Ranvier. When Schwann cell migration in gpr126 mutants is blocked, there is an increase in the number of neurofascin clusters in peripheral axons. Our results suggest that Schwann cells inhibit the ability of ankyrin G to cluster sodium channels at ectopic locations, restricting its activity to the AIS and nodes of Ranvier.

alphaII-spectrin is essential for assembly of the nodes of Ranvier in myelinated axons.

Saltatory conduction in myelinated axons requires organization of the nodes of Ranvier, where voltage-gated sodium channels are prominently localized [1]. Previous results indicate that alphaII-spectrin, a component of the cortical cytoskeleton [2], is enriched at the paranodes [3, 4], which flank the node of Ranvier, but alphaII-spectrin's function has not been investigated. Starting with a genetic screen in zebrafish, we discovered in alphaII-spectrin (alphaII-spn) a mutation that disrupts nodal sodium-channel clusters in myelinated axons of the PNS and CNS. In alphaII-spn mutants, the nodal sodium-channel clusters are reduced in number and disrupted at early stages. Analysis of chimeric animals indicated that alphaII-spn functions autonomously in neurons. Ultrastructural studies show that myelin forms in the posterior lateral line nerve and in the ventral spinal cord in alphaII-spn mutants and that the node is abnormally long; these findings indicate that alphaII-spn is required for the assembly of a mature node of the correct length. We find that alphaII-spectrin is enriched in nodes and paranodes at early stages and that the nodal expression diminishes as nodes mature. Our results provide functional evidence that alphaII-spectrin in the axonal cytoskeleton is essential for stabilizing nascent sodium-channel clusters and assembling the mature node of Ranvier.

nsf is essential for organization of myelinated axons in zebrafish.

BACKGROUND: Myelinated axons are essential for rapid conduction of action potentials in the vertebrate nervous system. Of particular importance are the nodes of Ranvier, sites of voltage-gated sodium channel clustering that allow action potentials to be propagated along myelinated axons by saltatory conduction. Despite their critical role in the function of myelinated axons, little is known about the mechanisms that organize the nodes of Ranvier. RESULTS: Starting with a forward genetic screen in zebrafish, we have identified an essential requirement for nsf (N-ethylmaleimide sensitive factor) in the organization of myelinated axons. Previous work has shown that NSF is essential for membrane fusion in eukaryotes and has a critical role in vesicle fusion at chemical synapses. Zebrafish nsf mutants are paralyzed and have impaired response to light, reflecting disrupted nsf function in synaptic transmission and neural activity. In addition, nsf mutants exhibit defects in Myelin basic protein expression and in localization of sodium channel proteins at nodes of Ranvier. Analysis of chimeric larvae indicates that nsf functions autonomously in neurons, such that sodium channel clusters are evident in wild-type neurons transplanted into the nsf mutant hosts. Through pharmacological analyses, we show that neural activity and function of chemical synapses are not required for sodium channel clustering and myelination in the larval nervous system. CONCLUSIONS: Zebrafish nsf mutants provide a novel vertebrate system to investigate Nsf function in vivo. Our results reveal a previously unknown role for nsf, independent of its function in synaptic vesicle fusion, in the formation of the nodes of Ranvier in the vertebrate nervous system.

erbb3 and erbb2 are essential for schwann cell migration and myelination in zebrafish.

BACKGROUND: Myelin is critical for efficient axonal conduction in the vertebrate nervous system. Neuregulin (Nrg) ligands and their ErbB receptors are required for the development of Schwann cells, the glial cells that form myelin in the peripheral nervous system. Previous studies have not determined whether Nrg-ErbB signaling is essential in vivo for Schwann cell fate specification, proliferation, survival, migration, or the onset of myelination. RESULTS: In genetic screens for mutants with disruptions in myelinated nerves, we identified mutations in erbb3 and erbb2, which together encode a heteromeric tyrosine kinase receptor for Neuregulin ligands. Phenotypic analysis shows that both genes are essential for development of Schwann cells. BrdU-incorporation studies and time-lapse analysis reveal that Schwann cell proliferation and migration, but not survival, are disrupted in erbb3 mutants. We show that Schwann cells can migrate in the absence of DNA replication. This uncoupling of proliferation and migration indicates that erbb gene function is required independently for these two processes. Pharmacological inhibition of ErbB signaling at different stages reveals a continuing requirement for ErbB function during migration and also provides evidence that ErbB signaling is required after migration for proliferation and the terminal differentiation of myelinating Schwann cells. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide in vivo evidence that Neuregulin-ErbB signaling is essential for directed Schwann cell migration and demonstrate that this pathway is also required for the onset of myelination in postmigratory Schwann cells.

Signal integration during development: insights from the Drosophila eye.

The Drosophila eye is a highly ordered epithelial tissue composed of approximately 750 subunits called ommatidia arranged in a reiterated hexagonal pattern. At higher resolution, observation of the constituent photoreceptors, cone cells, and pigment cells of the eye reveals a highly ordered mosaic of amazing regularity. This relatively simple organization belies the repeated requirement for spatially and temporally coordinated inputs from the Hedgehog (Hh), Wingless (Wg), Decapentaplegic (Dpp), JAK-STAT, Notch, and receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) signaling pathways. This review will discuss how signaling inputs from the Notch and RTK pathways, superimposed on the developmental history of a cell, facilitate context-specific and appropriate cell fate specification decisions in the developing fly eye. Lessons learned from investigating the combinatorial signal integration strategies underlying Drosophila eye development will likely reveal cell-cell communication paradigms relevant to many aspects of invertebrate and mammalian development. Developmental Dynamics 229:162-175, 2004.

The novel plant homeodomain protein rhinoceros antagonizes Ras signaling in the Drosophila eye.

The sequential specification of cell fates in the Drosophila eye requires repeated activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)/Ras/MAP kinase (MAPK) pathway. Equally important are the multiple layers of inhibitory regulation that prevent excessive or inappropriate signaling. Here we describe the molecular and genetic analysis of a previously uncharacterized gene, rhinoceros (rno), that we propose functions to restrict EGFR signaling in the eye. Loss of rno results in the overproduction of photoreceptors, cone cells, and pigment cells and a corresponding reduction in programmed cell death, all phenotypes characteristic of hyperactivated EGFR signaling. Genetic interactions between rno and multiple EGFR pathway components support this hypothesis. rno encodes a novel but evolutionarily conserved nuclear protein with a PHD zinc-finger domain, a motif commonly found in chromatin-remodeling factors. Future analyses of rno will help to elucidate the regulatory strategies that modulate EGFR signaling in the fly eye.

Biological functions of the ISWI chromatin remodeling complex NURF.

The nucleosome remodeling factor (NURF) is one of several ISWI-containing protein complexes that catalyze ATP-dependent nucleosome sliding and facilitate transcription of chromatin in vitro. To establish the physiological requirements of NURF, and to distinguish NURF genetically from other ISWI-containing complexes, we isolated mutations in the gene encoding the large NURF subunit, nurf301. We confirm that NURF is required for transcription activation in vivo. In animals lacking NURF301, heat-shock transcription factor binding to and transcription of the hsp70 and hsp26 genes are impaired. Additionally, we show that NURF is required for homeotic gene expression. Consistent with this, nurf301 mutants recapitulate the phenotypes of Enhancer of bithorax, a positive regulator of the Bithorax-Complex previously localized to the same genetic interval. Finally, mutants in NURF subunits exhibit neoplastic transformation of larval blood cells that causes melanotic tumors to form.