Is my body better than yours? Validation of the German version of the Upward and Downward Physical Appearance Comparison Scales in individuals with and without eating disorders.

Introduction: This study examines the psychometric properties of a German version of the Upward and Downward Physical Appearance Comparison Scales (UPACS and DACS). Methods: A total of 2,114 participants, consisting of 1,360 women without eating disorders (M age = 25.73, SD age = 6.84), 304 men without eating disorders (M age = 24.48, SD age = 6.34), and 450 women with eating disorders (M age = 27.11, SD age = 7.21), completed the UPACS and DACS as well as further questionnaires on appearance comparisons, eating disorder pathology, and self-esteem. Results: Structural equation modeling confirmed the proposed one-factor structure of the original English-language version of the DACS but not of the UPACS. Both scales showed good internal consistency and test-retest reliability. The UPACS and DACS showed the expected correlations with related constructs, indicating acceptable construct validity, with some limitations for women with eating disorders. Discussion: Overall, this study indicates that the German versions of the UPACS and DACS are psychometrically suitable for assessing upward and downward physical appearance comparisons in women and men without eating disorders and women with eating disorders in research and clinical practice.

One body, two faces: How double standards influence body evaluation in women with binge-eating disorder compared to mentally healthy women with higher weight and average weight.

OBJECTIVE: Research has found evidence that women with anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN) apply different standards for themselves than for others when evaluating bodies, an aspect of a disturbed body image. This study investigates whether women with binge-eating disorder (BED) likewise show self-deprecating double standards (DS). METHODS: Women with BED (n = 40), women with higher weight (n = 40) and women with average weight (n = 40) viewed a presentation of different builds, including their individual ideal body, which were presented once with participants' own and once with an unknown woman's face. After each presentation, participants rated their emotional response regarding arousal and valence, and evaluated the body's attractiveness, body fat and muscle mass. DS were defined as the difference in ratings of the same body with one's own and the unknown face. RESULTS: Women with BED showed a higher degree of negative emotions in response to a thin and a high-weight build, rated lower levels of body attractiveness for an athletic build, and displayed more arousal for almost all builds presented with their own compared to with another face. While women with BED showed a higher burden on measures of eating pathology and body image than the other groups, DS were not more pronounced in women with BED. DISCUSSION: The findings contradict DS as a characteristic feature of BED, but underline "normative" DS for higher-weight/high-weight builds, reflecting weight stigmatization. Psychoeducation on these DS might complement cognitive-behavioral therapy in BED in order to reduce negative emotions. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: A bias in body evaluation has been proven in women with anorexia and BN, but no research has examined this in women with BED. This study provides evidence of DS in body evaluation in women with BED, compares the extent of DS between women with BED, higher weight, and average weight, and investigates individual body ideals in women with BED and higher weight.

Giving a Body a Different Face-How Men and Women Evaluate Their Own Body vs. That of Others.

Eating disorders affect women more than men. Women reportedly dislike their body shape more and appreciate it less than do men. One factor influencing body image might be the application of different standards for oneself than for other people when evaluating bodies. To investigate this possibility, we determined whether the application of double standards is different between men and women. We presented 57 women and 54 men (aged 18-30 and of average weight) with pictures of their own bodies and pictures of average weight, overweight, and "ideal" bodies attached to the participants' own face and to another person's face. Participants were instructed to evaluate their emotional reaction to the pictures and then rate the various pictures on aspects of attractiveness, body fat, and muscle mass. The degree of the double standard was defined as the difference between ratings of what appeared to be one's own body and what appeared to be someone else's according to the presented face. The analyses revealed, firstly, that both genders applied self-deprecating double standards when viewing overweight and average-weight bodies. Women, but not men, also showed self-deprecating double standards when viewing the ideal body and their own body. By contrast, men applied fewer double standards when viewing the ideal body and self-enhancing double standards when viewing their own body. The study suggests that young, average-weight men are more or less satisfied with their own bodies, whereas young, average-weight women tend to apply a stricter standard for themselves than for others, thus devaluing their own bodies. This vulnerability to body image is hypothesized as contributing to the prevalence of eating disorders in women.

Time course of body recognition in women with weight and shape concerns assessed by steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEP).

This study aimed to examine self-body recognition in women with high (HWSC) and low weight and shape concerns (LWSC). Thus, the detection rate, the reaction time and the perceptual threshold for recognizing one's own body in a morphed body were measured in n = 25 women with HWSC and n = 26 women with LWSC. Furthermore, by using steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs), neuronal correlates of body recognition were recorded. The perceptual threshold for recognizing one's own body was higher for women with HWSC in the case of a morph with a thinner body. No group differences emerged for morphs with obese or average-weight bodies. The SSVEP amplitudes did not differentiate between one's own and another body in either group. The results suggest that for women with HWSC, their negative body schemata might hamper recognition of their own body in a thinner morph. Otherwise, self-body recognition is similar in women with LWSC and HWSC.

Approach and avoidance bias for thin-ideal and normal-weight body shapes in anorexia nervosa.

OBJECTIVE: The two studies aimed to examine implicit affective evaluations of thin-ideal and normal-weight body shapes in women with anorexia nervosa (AN), taking identification with body shapes into account. METHOD: In study 1, approach-avoidance bias for thin-ideal and normal-weight bodies was assessed in 40 women with AN and 40 healthy women by using an Approach-Avoidance Task and female avatar bodies with a standard face as stimuli. In study 2, 39 women with AN and 38 healthy women underwent a similar task but identification with bodies was manipulated by presenting bodies once with the participant's own face and once with another woman's face. RESULTS: In study 1, patients with AN did not differ from healthy participants in their automatic approach-avoidance tendencies towards thin-ideal and normal-weight bodies. In study 2, no definite approach bias for a thin self and no avoidance bias for thin other women or for a normal-weight self were found. However, as compared to healthy women, those with AN showed a less positive implicit evaluation of thin other women, and an implicit preference for thin bodies depicted as themselves over thin bodies depicted as another woman. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that intra-sexual competition for being slim is increased in AN.

Gender Differences in Body Evaluation: Do Men Show More Self-Serving Double Standards Than Women?

Generally speaking, compared to women, men are less dissatisfied with their own body and consider themselves to be better-looking and less overweight. So far, however, it is unclear whether these divergent body ratings arise from the application of double standards. With the present study, we examined whether men apply different standards to their own body than to other men's bodies and whether they differ from women in this regard. To this aim, we presented n = 104 women and n = 93 men with pictures of thin, average-weight, overweight, athletic and hypermuscular male and female bodies on a computer screen. To manipulate identification, we showed the bodies of the respective participant's gender once with the participant's own face and once with the face of another person. Identity cues, such as faces, might activate different body schemata, which influence body ratings and thus lead to the application of double standards. Participants were instructed to rate their emotional reaction to the bodies according to valence and arousal, and to rate the bodies with respect to attractiveness, body fat, and muscle mass. The application of double standards was determined by calculating the difference between the rating of a body presented with the participant's face and the rating of the same body presented with another person's face. Both women and men showed self-deprecating double standards in valence, body attractiveness, body fat and muscle mass for the overweight body. Men also revealed self-deprecating double standards for the thin, average-weight and hypermuscular bodies, but evaluated the athletic body as more attractive and with a higher positive feeling when it was presented with their own face. Women did not show any self-serving double standards and showed fewer self-deprecating double standards than men. The results indicate that men devalue non-ideal bodies and upvalue ideal bodies when they are self-related, whereas women more rate in a fair-minded manner. Thus, in contrast to women, an advantage for men may be that they are able to self-enhance in the case of desirable bodies. This ability to self-enhance regarding desirable features might be beneficial for men's self-worth and body satisfaction.

Sustained hypervigilance for one's own body in women with weight and shape concerns: Competition effects in early visual processing investigated by steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEP).

This study aimed to analyze the covert attentional time course in early body processing areas in women with high body concerns. Therefore, we assessed the effect of pictures of one's own body and other bodies as distractions from a demanding dot detection task in 24 women with low and 20 women with high body concerns. Participants were instructed to attend to flickering dots eliciting steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEP) measured by EEG. Both groups showed a sustained SSVEP amplitude reduction, which was more pronounced for average-weight or thin bodies than for overweight bodies. For women with high body concerns, SSVEP amplitudes decreased more in the case of pictures of their own body. The results indicate covert vigilance and maintenance patterns for body stimuli, especially for bodies representing the thin ideal. Moreover, women with high body concerns attend more to information about their own body, which might maintain body dissatisfaction.

Double standards in body evaluation? The influence of identification with body stimuli on ratings of attractiveness, body fat, and muscle mass.

Although it is well documented that women evaluate their own body differently from other bodies, it remains unclear whether this discrepancy is based on double standards because of identity or on objective differences between these bodies. The aim of this study was therefore to test whether women apply double standards depending on a body's identity when evaluating the same bodies presented with different faces. Average-weight women (N = 104) rated body attractiveness, body fat, and muscle mass of thin, average-weight, overweight, athletic, and hypermuscular bodies with either another female's face or their own face. With their own face, subjects rated overweight bodies as more unattractive, higher in body fat and lower in muscle mass than with another female's face. However, for non-overweight bodies, body ratings did not differ depending on body identity. Based on the self-deprecating double standards for overweight bodies, a body-related identity bias might be considered in theoretical models of body image.Level of evidence Level V, descriptive study.

Double standards in body evaluation? How identifying with a body stimulus influences ratings in women with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.

OBJECTIVE: Women with eating disorders (ED) evaluate their own body more negatively than do women without ED. However, it is unclear whether this negative rating is due to objective bodily features or different standards for one's own body and others' bodies. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine whether women with ED apply double standards when rating bodies by disentangling the objective features of one's own body from the feelings of ownership. METHOD: We presented n = 34 women with anorexia nervosa, n = 31 women with bulimia nervosa, and n = 114 healthy controls with pictures of thin, average-weight, overweight, athletic, and hypermuscular bodies. Identity was manipulated by showing each body once with the participant's own face and once with the face of another woman. Participants were instructed to report their emotional state according to valence and arousal and to rate body attractiveness, body fat, and muscle mass. RESULTS: Women with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa displayed greater self-deprecating double standards in body fat rating than did women without ED, as quantified by the difference between the ratings of the same body with one's own versus another woman's face. Double standards reflected in valence, arousal and attractiveness ratings were significantly more pronounced in women with anorexia nervosa than in women without ED. DISCUSSION: The double standards found may be due to an activation of dysfunctional self-related body schemata, which distort body evaluation depending on identity. Double standards related to body fat were characteristic for women with ED, but not for women without ED.