One year of active moss biomonitoring in the identification of PAHs in an urbanized area-prospects and implications.

Classical monitoring of air pollution provides information on environmental quality but involves high costs. An alternative to this method is the use of bioindicators. The purpose of our work was to evaluate atmospheric aerosol pollution by selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons conducted as part of annual active biomonitoring ("moss-bag" technique) with the use of three moss species: Pleurozium schreberi, Sphagnum fallax, and Dicranum polysetum. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was utilized to determine certain 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Three seasonal variations in PAH concentrations have been observed as a result of the study. A fire on the toilet paper plant caused an increase of five new compounds: benzo(k)fluoranthene (BkF), benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), indeno(1.2.3)-cd_pyrene (IP), dibenzo(a.h)anthracene (Dah), and benzo(g.h.i)perylene (Bghi) in proximity after 8 months of exposure compared to previous months. The effect of meteorological conditions on the deposition of PAHs (mainly wind direction) in mosses was confirmed by principal component analysis (PCA). Dicranum polysetum moss accumulated on average 26.5% more PAHs than the other species, which allows considering its broader use in active biomonitoring. The "moss-bag" technique demonstrates its feasibility in assessing the source of PAH air pollution in a long-term study. It is recommended to use this biological method as a valuable tool in air quality monitoring.

Moss-bag technique as an approach to monitor elemental concentration indoors.

The moss-bag technique has been used for many decades to monitor outdoor pollution. More recently, however, the method has been used to monitor indoor air pollution (IAP), as humans spend the majority of their time indoors. The purpose of the research conducted was to evaluate indoor air pollution using active moss biomonitoring. Pleurozium schreberi moss bags were exposed for two seasons (summer and winter), hanging over tile stoves and coal stoves. The selected elements: Al, Cu, Cd, Co, Pb, Zn, V, Ba, Cr, Fe, Mn, Sr, P, Ni, and S were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and, for Hg, by a direct mercury analyzer. The study found the exposure season affected the concentrations of selected elements in 62.5% of cases, and their source was identified. The average concentrations of Co, Ba, Cr, and Sr were higher, and statistically significant, in winter, after a 12-week exposure period of the mosses, regardless of the type of heating or cooking stove owned. The higher phosphorus concentrations obtained in summer indicate physiological stress caused by unfavorable winter exposure conditions. In the future, the number of species used to assess indoor air pollution should be increased and the range of pollutants expanded, along with the identification of their sources, taking residents' lifestyles into account.

The Application of Active Biomonitoring with the Use of Mosses to Identify Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in an Atmospheric Aerosol.

The use of biological indicators of environmental quality is an alternative method of monitoring ecosystem pollution. Various groups of contaminants, including organic ones, can be measured in environmental samples. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have not yet been determined by the moss bag technique. This technique uses several moss species simultaneously in urban areas to select the best biomonitoring of these compounds, which are dangerous to humans and the environment. In this research, a gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry was used for the determination of selected PAHs in three species of mosses: Pleurozium schreberi, Sphagnum fallax and Dicranum polysetum (active biomonitoring) and for comparison using an air filter reference method for atmospheric aerosol monitoring. The chlorophyll fluorescence of photosystem II (PSII) was also measured to assess changes in moss viability during the study. As a result of the study, the selective accumulation of selected PAHs by mosses was found, with Pleurozium schreberi being the best bioindicator-9 out of 13 PAHs compounds were determined in this species. The photosynthetic yield of photosystem (II) decreased by 81% during the exposure time. The relationship between PAHs concentrations in mosses and the total suspended particles (TSP) on the filter indicated the possibility of using this bioindicator to trace PAHs in urban areas and to apply the moss bag technique as a method supporting classical instrumental air monitoring.

Chemical oxidation and reduction of hexachlorocyclohexanes: A review.

Lindane (γ-hexachlorocyclohexane) and its isomers (HCH) are some of the most common and most easily detected organochlorine pesticides in the environment. The widespread distribution of lindane is due to its use as an insecticide, accompanied by its persistence and bioaccumulation, whereas HCH were disposed of as waste in unmanaged landfills. Unfortunately, certain HCH (especially the most reactive ones: γ- and α-HCH) are harmful to the central nervous system and to reproductive and endocrine systems, therefore development of suitable remediation methods is needed to remove them from contaminated soil and water. This paper provides a short history of the use of lindane and a description of the properties of HCH, as well as their determination methods. The main focus of the paper, however, is a review of oxidative and reductive treatment methods. Although these methods of HCH remediation are popular, there are no review papers summarising their principles, history, advantages and disadvantages. Furthermore, recent advances in the chemical treatment of HCH are discussed and risks concerning these processes are given.

Improvement of the thermophilic anaerobic digestion and hygienisation of waste activated sludge by synergistic pretreatment.

Hybrid disintegration of waste activated sludge (WAS) before the thermophilic anaerobic stabilization of WAS contributes to the intensification of organic compounds decomposition and increases the effectiveness of the anaerobic stabilization process compared to the fermentation of raw WAS. This article investigates the influence of a chemical-thermal pretreatment procedure with the use of NaOH and freezing by the dry ice on WAS. We found that the hybrid pretreatment of WAS causes higher concentration of released organics in the liquid phase (represented here as a change in soluble chemical oxygen demand - SCOD value) in comparison to these disintegration techniques used separately. The use of disintegrated WAS (WASD) as an additional material in the digester chambers impacts (varying on its proportion added), the generation of biogas and its yield. The recorded amount of the produced biogas and biogas yield after 21 days of fermentation increased by 26.6% and 2.7%, respectively (in comparison to blank sample). In addition, it was observed that the hybrid process before anaerobic stabilization contributes to a higher hygienisation of the digested sludge.

Illustration of constrained composition statistical methods in the interpretation of radionuclide concentrations in the moss Pleurozium schreberi.

In this work we have used moss Pleurozium schreberi as a bioindicator of radioactive materials in environment. The following radionuclides were determined in moss samples: (137)Cs, (40)K, (210)Pb, (212)Pb, (214)Pb, (214)Bi, (231)Th, (235)U and (228)Ac, but not all of them in each sample. The highest activity concentrations were found for naturally occurring (210)Pb, (40)K and the artificial isotope (137)Cs. Activities of radioisotopes were recalculated into mass concentrations and the statistical methods intended for constrained data processing were used. Analysis of our results showed at most a weak relationship between radioisotope mass concentrations in moss. It was supposed that concentrations of some elements depended on the same, currently unknown, factors.

Mechanisms for Translocation of Heavy Metals from Soil to Epigeal Mosses.

The mechanisms for translocation of heavy metals from soil to epigeal mosses were investigated. The first mechanism was demonstrated for (137)Cs and involved the uplifting of the pollutant-containing dust from the soil, followed by the local secondary deposition on surfaces of epigeal mosses and epiphytic lichens. The second mechanism involved the diffusion of metal cations from the soil through water wetting the moss into the gametophyte. The mechanism was demonstrated by measuring the electric conductance of wetted gametophytes with single ends immersed in solutions of Cu and Na salts. In addition, the concentrations of Cu and Cd were compared in moss samples exposed to the natural soil and to the soil contaminated with the metals. The exposition to the contaminated soil resulted in the statistically significant increase of metal concentrations in the gametophytes.

Sorption of copper(II) ions in the biomass of alga Spirogyra sp.

Sorption of copper ions by the alga Spirogyra sp. was investigated to determine the influence of experimental conditions and the methods of sample preparation on the process. The experiments were carried out both under the static and the dynamic conditions. Kinetics and equilibrium parameters of the sorption were evaluated. In addition, the influence was studied of the algae preparation methods on the conductivity of demineralized water in which the algae samples were immersed. The static experiments showed that the sorption of Cu(2+) ions reached equilibrium in about 30 min, with approximately 90% of the ions adsorbed in the initial 15 min. The sorption capacity determined from the Langmuir isotherms appeared highly uncertain (SD=±0.027 mg/g dry mass or ±11%, for the live algae). Under static conditions, the slopes of the Langmuir isotherms depended on the ratio of the alga mass to the volume of solution. The conductometric measurements were proven to be a simple and fast way to evaluate the quality of algae used for the experiments.

Mercury concentration in lichen, moss and soil samples collected from the forest areas of Praded and Glacensis Euroregions (Poland and Czech Republic).

The concentration of mercury was determined in samples of the lichen Hypogymnia physodes, the moss Pleurozium schreberi, and the soil humus collected in Polish and Czech Euroregions Praded and Glacensis. The sampling sites were located in Bory Stobrawskie, Bory Niemodlinskie and Kotlina Klodzka in Poland, and in Jeseniki and Gory Orlickie in the Czech Republic. The mean concentrations of mercury accumulated in the lichen (0.129 mg g(-1)), in the moss (0.094 mg g(-1)) and in soil (0.286 mg g(-1)) were fairly close to the corresponding concentrations in other low-industrialized regions. The highest concentrations of mercury were observed in the lichen and the moss samples from Kotlina Klodzka. The primary deposition of mercury was evaluated using the comparison factor, defined as the ratio of a difference between the concentrations of a bioavailable analyte in lichens and in mosses, to the arithmetic mean of these concentrations.

Use of Lichen and Moss in Assessment of Forest Contamination with Heavy Metals in Praded and Glacensis Euroregions (Poland and Czech Republic).

The concentrations of selected metals-Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb-were determined in the samples of Hypogymnia physodes lichen and Pleurozium schreberi moss collected in Polish and Czech Euroregions Praded and Glacensis. More specifically, the samples were collected in Bory Stobrawskie, Bory Niemodlinskie, and Kotlina Klodzka (Poland) and in Jeseniki (Czech Republic). The concentration of metals in the samples was measured using the atomic absorption spectrometry (flame AAS technique and electrothermal atomization AAS technique). The results were used to calculate the comparison factor (CF) that quantifies the difference in concentration of a given bioavailable analyte × accumulated in lichens and mosses: CF = 2 (c(x,lichen) - c(x,moss)) (c(x,lichen) + c(x,moss))(-1). The values of CF greater than 0.62 indicate the most probable location of heavy metals deposited in the considered area. In this work, the method was used to show a significant contribution of urban emissions to the deposition of heavy metals in the area of Bory Stobrawskie and in the vicinity of Klodzko City.

Algae utilization in assessment of the large Turawa Lake (Poland) pollution with heavy metals.

This investigation was undertaken to determine the applicability of algae for the assessment of contamination level of water reservoirs with heavy metals. The alga Spirogyra sp. collected in the littoral zone of the Large Turawa Lake (artificial lake in Southern Poland) was used for the study. The concentrations of heavy metals accumulated in the alga inhabiting a flow-through water basin of the Large Turawa Lake were found to correlate with sources of these metals, such as benthic sediments and contaminated watercourses. The highest concentrations of metals were found in alga samples collected at the outlet of the lake: c (Mn) = 12330 mg/kg dry mass, c (Fe) = 15059 mg/kg d.m., c (Cu) = 47.5 mg/kg d.m., c (Zn) = 1411 mg/kg d.m., c (Cd) = 108.8 mg/kg d.m., and c (Pb) = 684 mg/kg d.m. The metals originated from benthic sediments (sapropelic mud) deposited close to the outlet of the lake. Statistically significant differences in the concentrations of cadmium accumulated in the alga were found between samples from the sites, where cadmium occurred in sandy sediments (max. 27.6 mg/kg d.m.), and samples from the sites located far from the contaminated sediments (max. 12.8 mg/kg d.m.).

Sorption properties of algae Spirogyra sp. and their use for determination of heavy metal ions concentrations in surface water.

Kinetics of heavy-metal ions sorption by alga Spirogyra sp. was evaluated experimentally in the laboratory, using both the static and the dynamic approach. The metal ions--Mn(2+), Cu(2+), Zn(2+) and Cd(2+)--were sorbed from aqueous solutions of their salts. The static experiments showed that the sorption equilibria were attained in 30 min, with 90-95% of metal ions sorbed in first 10 min of each process. The sorption equilibria were approximated with the Langmuir isotherm model. The algae sorbed each heavy metal ions proportionally to the amount of this metal ions in solution. The experiments confirmed that after 30 min of exposition to contaminated water, the concentration of heavy metal ions in the algae, which initially contained small amounts of these metal ions, increased proportionally to the concentration of metal ions in solution. The presented results can be used for elaboration of a method for classification of surface waters that complies with the legal regulations.

Ion equilibrium in lichen surrounding.

In laboratory conditions, the ionic equilibriums between a solution and a cation-active layer of epiphytic lichens Hypogymnia physodes immersed in the solution were examined. It was found that such equilibriums, due to exchange of mobile cations: H, Na, K, Ca, and Mg, are established in natural conditions between a lichen and atmospheric water.