DEC205+ Dendritic Cell-Targeted Tolerogenic Vaccination Promotes Immune Tolerance in Experimental Autoimmune Arthritis.

Previous studies in mouse models of autoimmune diabetes and encephalomyelitis have indicated that the selective delivery of self-antigen to the endocytic receptor DEC205 on steady-state dendritic cells (DCs) may represent a suitable approach to induce Ag-specific immune tolerance. In this study, we aimed to examine whether DEC205(+) DC targeting of a single immunodominant peptide derived from human cartilage proteoglycan (PG) can promote immune tolerance in PG-induced arthritis (PGIA). Besides disease induction by immunization with whole PG protein with a high degree of antigenic complexity, PGIA substantially differs from previously studied autoimmune models not only in the target tissue of autoimmune destruction but also in the nature of pathogenic immune effector cells. Our results show that DEC205(+) DC targeting of the PG peptide 70-84 is sufficient to efficiently protect against PGIA development. Complementary mechanistic studies support a model in which DEC205(+) DC targeting leads to insufficient germinal center B cell support by PG-specific follicular helper T cells. Consequently, impaired germinal center formation results in lower Ab titers, severely compromising the development of PGIA. Overall, this study further corroborates the potential of prospective tolerogenic DEC205(+) DC vaccination to interfere with autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis.

Membrane-bound metallothionein 1 of murine dendritic cells promotes the expansion of regulatory T cells in vitro.

Exposure to environmental toxicants can alter a range of cellular functions involved in the immune response. Increased expression of the stress protein metallothionein 1 (MT1) is one example hereof. Previously, it has been reported that MT1 has several immunosuppressive properties. Furthermore, we earlier showed that functionally tolerogenic dendritic cells (DCs) expressed increased mRNA levels of MT1. Here, we demonstrate that dexamethasone-treated murine DCs are functionally tolerogenic and produce MT1. However, these DCs do not actively transport MT1 to the cell membrane and their regulatory function does not depend on MT1. Alternatively, ZnCl2-treated murine DCs transport MT1 to the cell surface are tolerogenic and promote the expansion of T cells with a regulatory phenotype. Moreover, the membrane-bound MT1 was shown to be essential for ZnCl2-treated DCs to exert their regulatory function. On the basis of this, MT1 can be used as a new marker for functionally tolerogenic DCs. Additionally, we have found a new mechanism for tolerogenic DCs to exert their immune regulatory function.

Regulatory T cells that recognize a ubiquitous stress-inducible self-antigen are long-lived suppressors of autoimmune arthritis.

Reestablishing self-tolerance in autoimmunity is thought to depend on self-reactive regulatory T cells (Tregs). Exploiting these antigen-specific regulators is hampered by the obscure nature of disease-relevant autoantigens. We have uncovered potent disease-suppressive Tregs recognizing Heat Shock Protein (Hsp) 70 self-antigens, enabling selective activity in inflamed tissues. Hsp70 is a major contributor to the MHC class II ligandome. Here we show that a conserved Hsp70 epitope (B29) is present in murine MHC class II and that upon transfer, B29-induced CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) T cells suppress established proteoglycan-induced arthritis in mice. These self-antigen-specific Tregs were activated in vivo, and when using Lymphocyte Activation Gene-3 as a selection marker, as few as 4,000 cells sufficed. Furthermore, depletion of transferred Tregs abrogated disease suppression. Transferred cells exhibited a stable phenotype and were found in joints and draining lymph nodes up to 2 mo after transfer. Given that (i) B29 administration by itself suppressed disease, (ii) our findings were made with wild-type (T-cell receptor nontransgenic) Tregs, and (iii) the B29 human homolog is presented by HLA class II, we are nearing translation of antigen-specific Treg activation as a promising intervention for chronic inflammatory diseases.

Optimizing the therapeutic index of liposomal glucocorticoids in experimental arthritis.

Small-sized (less than 150 nm) long-circulating liposomes (LCL) may be useful as drug-targeting vehicles for anti-inflammatory agents in arthritis, since they selectively home at inflamed joints after i.v. administration. Previously it was shown in experimental arthritis that encapsulation of glucocorticoids (GC) as water-soluble phosphate esters in PEG-liposomes resulted in a strong improvement of the anti-inflammatory effect as compared to the free drug. In the present study, we compared the therapeutic activity and adverse effects induced by 3 different GC encapsulated in LCL in an attempt to further optimize the therapeutic index of liposomal GC in arthritis. Our data showed that with GC (dexamethasone, budesonide) of higher potency than prednisolone, the therapeutic activity of liposomal GC can be increased. However, side effects at the level of body weight and hyperglycemia were noted, related to the sustained free GC level observed after injection of the liposomal GC. An inverse relationship with the clearance rate of the free GC in question was shown. This study stresses the importance of a high clearance rate of the GC to be encapsulated for achieving a maximal therapeutic index with liposomal GC. Therefore high-clearance GC, which until now are only applied in local treatment approaches, may be very useful for the development of novel, highly effective anti-inflammatory preparations for systemic treatment of inflammatory disorders.

A novel heat-shock protein coinducer boosts stress protein Hsp70 to activate T cell regulation of inflammation in autoimmune arthritis.

OBJECTIVE: Stress proteins, such as members of the heat-shock protein (HSP) family, are up-regulated by cells in inflamed tissue and can be viewed functionally as "biomarkers" for the immune system to monitor inflammation. Exogenous administration of stress proteins has induced immunoregulation in various models of inflammation and has also been shown to be effective in clinical trials in humans. This study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that boosting of endogenous HSP expression can restore effective immunoregulation through T cells specific for stress proteins. METHODS: Stress protein expression was manipulated in vivo and in vitro with a food component (carvacrol), and immune recognition of stress proteins was studied. RESULTS: Carvacrol, a major compound in the oil of many Origanum species, had a notable capacity to coinduce cellular Hsp70 expression in vitro and, upon intragastric administration, in Peyer's patches of mice in vivo. As a consequence, carvacrol specifically promoted T cell recognition of endogenous Hsp70, as demonstrated in vitro by the activation of an Hsp70-specific T cell hybridoma and in vivo by amplified T cell responses to Hsp70. Carvacrol administration also increased the number of CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ T cells, systemically in the spleen and locally in the joint, and almost completely suppressed proteoglycan-induced experimental arthritis. Furthermore, protection against arthritis could be transferred with T cells isolated from carvacrol-fed mice. CONCLUSION: These findings illustrate that a food component can boost protective T cell responses to a self stress protein and down-regulate inflammatory disease, i.e., that the immune system can respond to diet.

Identification and monitoring of effector and regulatory T cells during experimental arthritis based on differential expression of CD25 and CD134.

Major problems in the analysis of CD4+ effector cell and regulatory T cell (Treg) populations in an activated immune system are caused by the facts that both cell types can express CD25 and that the discriminatory marker forkhead box p3 can only be analyzed in nonviable (permeabilized) cells. Here, we show that CD134 (OX40) can be used as a discriminatory marker combined with CD25 to isolate and characterize viable CD4+ effector cells and Tregs. Before and during adjuvant arthritis in rats, coexpression of CD134 and CD25 identified activated Tregs consistently, as these T cells proliferated poorly to disease-associated antigens and were suppressive in vitro and in vivo. Depending on the time of isolation and location, CD4+ T cell populations expressing CD134 or CD25 contained effector/memory T cells. Analysis of the function, phenotype, and amount of the CD4+ T cell subsets in different lymph node stations revealed spatiotemporal differences in effector cell and Treg compartments during experimental arthritis.

CD134 as target for specific drug delivery to auto-aggressive CD4+ T cells in adjuvant arthritis.

T cells have an important role during the development of autoimmune diseases. In adjuvant arthritis, a model for rheumatoid arthritis, we found that the percentage of CD4+ T cells expressing the activation marker CD134 (OX40 antigen) was elevated before disease onset. Moreover, these CD134+ T cells showed a specific proliferative response to the disease-associated epitope of mycobacterial heat shock protein 60, indicating that this subset contains auto-aggressive T cells. We studied the usefulness of CD134 as a molecular target for immune intervention in arthritis by using liposomes coated with a CD134-directed monoclonal antibody as a drug targeting system. Injection of anti-CD134 liposomes subcutaneously in the hind paws of pre-arthritic rats resulted in targeting of the majority of CD4+CD134+ T cells in the popliteal lymph nodes. Furthermore, we showed that anti-CD134 liposomes bound to activated T cells were not internalized. However, drug delivery by these liposomes could be established by loading anti-CD134 liposomes with the dipalmitate-derivatized cytostatic agent 5'-fluorodeoxyuridine. These liposomes specifically inhibited the proliferation of activated CD134+ T cells in vitro, and treatment with anti-CD134 liposomes containing 5'-fluorodeoxyuridine resulted in the amelioration of adjuvant arthritis. Thus, CD134 can be used as a marker for auto-aggressive CD4+ T cells early in arthritis, and specific liposomal targeting of drugs to these cells via CD134 can be employed to downregulate disease development.

Limited plasticity in T cell recognition of modified T cell receptor contact residues in MHC class II bound peptides.

The balance between specific and degenerate T cell recognition of MHC class II bound peptides is crucial for T cell repertoire selection, and holds important implications for protective immunity versus autoimmunity. To investigate the degree of degeneracy in T cell recognition, we applied selected modifications to T cell receptor (TCR) contact residue amino acids in the MHC class II bound epitope gpMBP72-85. By using glycosylated amino acids, as an example of a posttranslational modification, large alterations were applied. Small modifications were accomplished by exchanging an arginine residue for a citrulline or an ornithine residue. Finally, the unmodified TCR contact residue side chains were shifted one atom position to the left, using peptoid residues. Both these large and subtle changes in the wild type (WT) peptide caused lack of recognition by WT peptide specific monoclonal and polyclonal T cells. Furthermore, T cells specific for the modified peptides did not cross recognize the WT peptide. Using a set of additional compounds, we investigated the specificity of these T cell populations into detail. Our data reveal a strongly limited plasticity in T cell recognition, and a high specificity for TCR contact residue side chains.

Possibilities and limitations in the rational design of modified peptides for T cell mediated immunotherapy.

Therapeutic intervention in experimental autoimmune diseases by modulation of the T cell mediated autoimmune response has been accomplished in the past using altered peptide ligands (APLs). These peptides are usually created by applying alterations to the T cell epitope recognized by the autoaggressive T cells. In this study, we investigated whether it was possible to design APLs in a rational way, using knowledge of molecular interaction in the MHC-peptide-T cell receptor (TCR) complex, for the therapeutic intervention in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Additionally, the value of peptidomimetic modification and alterations based on posttranslational modifications for the design of APLs was examined. Based on a molecular model of the MHC-peptide complex, the T cell receptor contact residues were identified and selected alterations were applied. The designed APLs were tested for MHC binding capacity, T cell recognition, blocking of the autoreactive T cell response, immunogenicity, encephalitogenicity, and therapeutic activity. Based on the results of the in vitro assays, it was expected that some of our APLs would be able to modulate EAE. Nevertheless, none of these APLs displayed clear therapeutic activity in vivo. Thus, rational design of modified peptides for immunotherapy has to await further insights into the relationships between structure and peptide/peptidomimetic induced T cell activation, and until that, there is no possibility to take advantage of the tailor made origin of peptidomimetics.

Uptake of membrane molecules from T cells endows antigen-presenting cells with novel functional properties.

Although intercellular transfer of cell surface molecules has been observed between several cells of the immune system, the physiological relevance of this phenomenon remained obscure. Until now the transfer of molecules between antigen-presenting cells (APC) and T cells has been described as a unidirectional process from APC to T cells. However, here we show that T cells in turn donate molecules to APC, and that T cell-derived vesicles can mediate this transfer. The transferred proteins are incorporated into the APC as active molecules. Our data provide evidence that T cells use intercellular molecule transfer to mediate cell contact-dependent regulation of T cell responses via modulation of the APC.

Identification of a CD4+CD25+ T cell subset committed in vivo to suppress antigen-specific T cell responses without additional stimulation.

Naturally occurring CD4+ regulatory T cells can be identified on the basis of expression of CD25 and suppression of T cell responses in vitro after TCR triggering. Here, we demonstrate that a CD134+ subset of CD4+CD25+ T cells in naive rats suppresses antigen-specific T cell responses in vitro without additional TCR stimulation. In contrast, CD4+CD25+CD134- regulatory T cells and total CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells have suppressive activity only during simultaneous activation of responder and regulatory T cells or after in vitro pre-activation. Furthermore CD4+CD25+CD134+ T cells have a more activated phenotype than CD4+CD25+CD134- T cells, as based on the expression of CD62L, CD45RC, and MHC class II. We propose that the CD134+ regulatory T cells contain an in vivo activated and highly suppressive regulatory T cell subset. CD4+CD25+CD134+ T cells can be found in several compartments of the immune system, including spleen, lymph nodes, and blood. Interestingly though, the relative amounts of these cells within the CD4+ population and their CD134 expression levels are highest in mucosa-draining lymph nodes and lowest in blood. This suggests that the presence of CD4+CD25+CD134+ T cells indicates sites of active immune suppression.

Matrix metalloproteinases as targets for the immune system during experimental arthritis.

Novel therapies for rheumatoid arthritis aiming at intervention in the inflammatory process by manipulation of autoreactive T and B lymphocytes receive major interest. However, the development of such therapies is largely hampered by the lack of knowledge of self-Ags recognized during the disease process. Recently, we predicted putative T cell self-epitopes based on a computer search profile. In the present study, the predicted self-epitopes were tested for T cell recognition in two experimental arthritis models, and their arthritogenic capacity was analyzed. Fourteen of n = 51 predicted self-epitopes were recognized during experimental arthritis of which six were able to actively induce arthritis. Interestingly, three of these six peptides were derived from matrix metalloproteinases (MMP), and only T cells responsive to MMP-derived epitopes were able to passively transfer arthritis to naive rats. Moreover, we demonstrate the presence of Abs to MMP-3 during the course of adjuvant arthritis. Together these data indicate that MMPs play a pivotal role as target for T and B cells during the development of inflammatory arthritis. This finding sheds new light on the pathophysiological role of MMPs during arthritis and opens novel possibilities for Ag-specific immunotherapy.

Stabilization of peptide guinea pig myelin basic protein 72-85 by N-terminal acetylation-implications for immunological studies.

Peptide gpMBP72-85, containing amino acids 72-85 of guinea pig myelin basic protein is commonly used to induce experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in Lewis rats. The N-terminal glutamine in this peptide can cyclize to pyroglutamic acid, leading to loss of the first MHC anchor for binding to MHC class II. Acetylation of the peptide N-terminus prevents pyroglutamic acid formation and ensures a constant quality. An increased MHC binding affinity after N-terminal acetylation was observed. This modification also enhanced T cell proliferation of a gpMBP reactive T cell clone. The encephalitogenicity of peptide gpMBP72-85 was unaffected by acetylation. It is concluded that acetylation improves the chemical stability of gpMBP72-85, and is not detrimental but rather favorable for its biochemical and immunological, in vitro, and in vivo behavior.

Complete remission of experimental arthritis by joint targeting of glucocorticoids with long-circulating liposomes.

OBJECTIVE: To increase the therapeutic activity of glucocorticoids in experimental arthritis by encapsulation in long-circulating polyethylene glycol liposomes, which have shown the ability to preferentially accumulate in inflamed joints after intravenous administration. METHODS: Rats with adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) were treated intravenously with liposomal and free prednisolone phosphate (PLP) a few days after the first signs of disease. The effect on paw inflammation scores during the weeks after treatment was evaluated. Liposome biodistribution and joint localization were investigated by labeling the preparation with radioactive (111)In-oxine. By studying PLP encapsulated in other types of liposomes, which show a distinctive tissue distribution pattern and reduced accumulation in inflamed joints, the importance of targeted delivery to inflamed joints for achieving an increased therapeutic effect was illustrated. RESULTS: Liposomal PLP proved to be highly effective in the rat AIA model. A single injection of 10 mg/kg resulted in complete remission of the inflammatory response for almost a week. In contrast, the same dose of unencapsulated PLP did not reduce inflammation, and only a slight effect was observed after repeated daily injections. Evidence was found that preferential glucocorticoid delivery to the inflamed joint was the key factor explaining the observed strong therapeutic benefit obtained with the liposomal preparation, while other possible mechanisms, such as splenic accumulation or prolonged release of prednisolone in the circulation, were excluded. CONCLUSION: Targeted delivery using long-circulating liposomes is a promising, novel means to successfully intervene in arthritis with glucocorticoid therapy.

Searching for the cartilage-associated mimicry epitope in adjuvant arthritis.

Adjuvant arthritis (AA) is a T cell mediated disease which can be induced in genetically susceptible rats by immunization with heat-killed Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mt) suspended in incomplete Freund's adjuvant. The critical mycobacterial T cell epitope for the induction of AA was previously identified as residues 178-186 of the mycobacterial 65 kDa heat shock protein (Mt. hsp65(178-186)). It was suggested that the development of AA was due to molecular mimicry between a mycobacterial epitope and a cartilage-associated self-antigen. However, until now such cartilage-associated mimicry epitope has not been identified. In this study we designed a computer search profile to predict mimicry self-epitopes, and investigated whether one or more of these self-epitopes could serve as mimicry epitopes in AA. Although several of these self-epitopes were recognized by arthritogenic T cells, no cross-reactivity was found between T cells specific for these self-epitopes and Mt. hsp65(178-186) specific T cells.

Successful immunotherapy with matrix metalloproteinase-derived peptides in adjuvant arthritis depends on the timing of peptide administration.

We have recently found that matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are targets for T-cell and B-cell reactivity in experimental arthritis. In the present article, we investigate whether modulation of MMP-specific T-cell responses could influence the course of adjuvant arthritis (AA). Lewis rats were treated nasally with MMP peptides prior to or after AA induction. Administration of the MMP-10 or the MMP-16 peptide prior to AA induction reduced the arthritic symptoms. In contrast, administration of the MMP-10 peptide after AA induction aggravated the arthritic symptoms. The present study shows the possible usefulness of MMP peptides for immunotherapy. However, a clear understanding of proper timing of peptide administration is crucial for the development of such therapies.

Adjuvant arthritis in the rat.

Adjuvant arthritis (AA) is an induced form of (sub)chronic arthritis. Strains of rats have a varying genetic susceptibility to AA, whereas mice generally are not susceptible. AA is most easily induced with mycobacteria suspended in oil, although in some strains of rats it can be induced with oily adjuvants in the absence of mycobacteria. The disease is a T cell-mediated autoimmune arthritis that is frequently used to study immunological aspects of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and other arthritic or inflammatory diseases in humans. Furthermore, it is used as a model for developing and testing antiinflammatory drugs. There are no particularly well-defined autoantigens in AA; in this respect, the model resembles spontaneous arthritic diseases in humans. In all susceptible rat strains, the inflammatory process of AA is self remitting, although usually the disease is severe and leads to permanent joint malformations, including ankylosis; a time line for AA development is presented. This unit describes the induction and evaluation of AA and the preparation of adjuvant used to induce AA.