ABSTRACT
Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) induces cell cycle arrest of most nontransformed epithelial cell lines. In contrast, many human carcinomas are refractory to the growth-inhibitory effect of TGF-beta. TGF-beta overexpression inhibits tumorigenesis, and abolition of TGF-beta signaling accelerates tumorigenesis, suggesting that TGF-beta acts as a tumor suppressor in mouse models of cancer. A screen to identify agents that potentiate TGF-beta-induced growth arrest demonstrated that the potential anticancer agent rapamycin cooperated with TGF-beta to induce growth arrest in multiple cell lines. Rapamycin also augmented the ability of TGF-beta to inhibit the proliferation of E2F1-, c-Myc-, and (V12)H-Ras-transformed cells, even though these cells were insensitive to TGF-beta-mediated growth arrest in the absence of rapamycin. Rapamycin potentiation of TGF-beta-induced growth arrest could not be explained by increases in TGF-beta receptor levels or rapamycin-induced dissociation of FKBP12 from the TGF-beta type I receptor. Significantly, TGF-beta and rapamycin cooperated to induce growth inhibition of human carcinoma cells that are resistant to TGF-beta-induced growth arrest, and arrest correlated with a suppression of Cdk2 kinase activity. Inhibition of Cdk2 activity was associated with increased binding of p21 and p27 to Cdk2 and decreased phosphorylation of Cdk2 on Thr(160). Increased p21 and p27 binding to Cdk2 was accompanied by decreased p130, p107, and E2F4 binding to Cdk2. Together, these results indicate that rapamycin and TGF-beta cooperate to inhibit the proliferation of nontransformed cells and cancer cells by acting in concert to inhibit Cdk2 activity.
Subject(s)
Antibiotics, Antineoplastic/metabolism , CDC2-CDC28 Kinases , Carcinoma/metabolism , Cell Division/physiology , Proteins , Sirolimus/metabolism , Transforming Growth Factor beta/metabolism , Animals , Cell Cycle Proteins/metabolism , Cell Line , Cell Transformation, Neoplastic , Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 2 , Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p21 , Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p27 , Cyclin-Dependent Kinases/metabolism , Cyclins/metabolism , DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism , E2F4 Transcription Factor , Enzyme Inhibitors/metabolism , Epithelial Cells/physiology , Genes, Reporter , Growth Inhibitors/metabolism , Humans , Nuclear Proteins/metabolism , Phosphoproteins/metabolism , Protein Binding , Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/metabolism , Retinoblastoma Protein/metabolism , Retinoblastoma-Like Protein p107 , Retinoblastoma-Like Protein p130 , Signal Transduction/physiology , Tacrolimus Binding Proteins/metabolism , Transcription Factors/metabolism , Tumor Suppressor Proteins/metabolismABSTRACT
Herbs have been used for medicinal purposes, including the treatment of diabetes, for centuries. Plants containing flavonoids are used to treat diabetes in Indian medicine and the green tea flavonoid, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), is reported to have glucose-lowering effects in animals. We show here that the regulation of hepatic glucose production is decreased by EGCG. Furthermore, like insulin, EGCG increases tyrosine phosphorylation of the insulin receptor and insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), and it reduces phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene expression in a phosphoinositide 3-kinase-dependent manner. EGCG also mimics insulin by increasing phosphoinositide 3-kinase, mitogen-activated protein kinase, and p70(s6k) activity. EGCG differs from insulin, however, in that it affects several insulin-activated kinases with slower kinetics. Furthermore, EGCG regulates genes that encode gluconeogenic enzymes and protein-tyrosine phosphorylation by modulating the redox state of the cell. These results demonstrate that changes in the redox state may have beneficial effects for the treatment of diabetes and suggest a potential role for EGCG, or derivatives, as an antidiabetic agent.
Subject(s)
Catechin/pharmacology , Gluconeogenesis/drug effects , Glucose/biosynthesis , Liver/drug effects , Acetylcysteine/pharmacology , Animals , Catechin/analogs & derivatives , Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic/drug effects , Glucose-6-Phosphatase/genetics , Insulin/pharmacology , Liver/enzymology , Liver/metabolism , Liver Neoplasms, Experimental/enzymology , Liver Neoplasms, Experimental/metabolism , Liver Neoplasms, Experimental/pathology , Phosphorylation , Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/genetics , Rats , Signal Transduction/drug effects , Superoxide Dismutase/pharmacology , Tumor Cells, Cultured , Tyrosine/metabolismABSTRACT
Hormones regulate glucose homeostasis, in part, by controlling the expression of gluconeogenic enzymes, such as phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK). Insulin and glucocorticoids reciprocally regulate PEPCK expression primarily at the level of gene transcription. We demonstrate here that glucocorticoids promote, whereas insulin disrupts, the association of CREB-binding protein (CBP) and RNA polymerase II with the hepatic PEPCK gene promoter in vivo. We also show that accessory factors, such as CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein beta (C/EBP beta), can recruit CBP to drive transcription. Insulin increases protein levels of liver-enriched transcriptional inhibitory protein (LIP), an inhibitory form of C/EBP beta, in a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent manner. LIP concomitantly replaces liver-enriched transcriptional activator protein on the PEPCK gene promoter, which can abrogate the recruitment of CBP and polymerase II, culminating in the repression of PEPCK expression and the attenuation of hepatocellular glucose production.
