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1.
Sci Total Environ ; 838(Pt 3): 156351, 2022 Sep 10.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-35660584

ABSTRACT

Drought would significantly influence the forest soils through changing the litterfall production and decomposition process. However, comprehensive in situ studies on drought effects in subtropical forests, especially in bamboo forests, have rarely been conducted. Here, we conducted a throughfall exclusion experiment with a rainfall reduction of ~80% in moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) forests to investigate effects of drought on litter quantity, quality, soil microbial and enzyme activities, and soil nutrients across two years in subtropical China. We observed that throughfall exclusion (TE) treatment significantly decreased soil moisture by 63% compared to ambient control treatment (CK). Drought significantly decreased the annual litterfall in the second treatment year, and the leaf litter decomposition rate (-30% relative to CK) over 2 years of decomposition. TE treatment significantly decreased net release rate of litter carbon (C) and the amount of litter nitrogen (N) immobilization during a 360-day decomposition period, leading an increased litter C: N ratio in TE compared to CK. There was a distinct difference in soil microbial community composition between TE and CK treatments, showing higher bacteria biomass in TE but no difference in fungal biomass between TE and CK. Structural equation modelling revealed that drought decreased the contribution of litter quantity to soil nutrients but increased that of litter quality and soil microbial community to soil nutrients. Our results suggest that increasing drought events in subtropical China will directly reduce litterfall quantity and quality on the one hand, and alter the soil enzyme activities and microbial composition on the other hand, all of which will consequently decrease litter decomposition rate, soil nutrient availability, growth rate and productivity, leading to changes in the functioning and services of subtropical bamboo forests.


Subject(s)
Droughts , Soil , Forests , Nutrients , Plant Leaves , Poaceae , Soil/chemistry , Soil Microbiology
2.
Front Plant Sci ; 12: 772463, 2021.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-35069627

ABSTRACT

Trees can build fine-root systems with high variation in root size (e.g., fine-root diameter) and root number (e.g., branching pattern) to optimize belowground resource acquisition in forest ecosystems. Compared with leaves, which are visible above ground, information about the distribution and inequality of fine-root size and about key associations between fine-root size and number is still limited. We collected 27,573 first-order fine-roots growing out of 3,848 second-order fine-roots, covering 51 tree species in three temperate forests (Changbai Mountain, CBS; Xianrendong, XRD; and Maoershan, MES) in Northeastern China. We investigated the distribution and inequality of fine-root length, diameter and area (fine-root size), and their trade-off with fine-root branching intensity and ratio (fine-root number). Our results showed a strong right-skewed distribution in first-order fine-root size across various tree species. Unimodal frequency distributions were observed in all three of the sampled forests for first-order fine-root length and area and in CBS and XRD for first-order fine-root diameter, whereas a marked bimodal frequency distribution of first-order fine-root diameter appeared in MES. Moreover, XRD had the highest and MES had the lowest inequality values (Gini coefficients) in first-order fine-root diameter. First-order fine-root size showed a consistently linear decline with increasing root number. Our findings suggest a common right-skewed distribution with unimodality or bimodality of fine-root size and a generalized trade-off between fine-root size and number across the temperate tree species. Our results will greatly improve our thorough understanding of the belowground resource acquisition strategies of temperate trees and forests.

3.
Nanoscale ; 12(7): 4729-4735, 2020 Feb 20.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-32049081

ABSTRACT

Organic electrode materials have secured a distinctive place among the auspicious choices for modern energy storage systems due to their resource sustainability and environmental friendliness. Herein, a novel all-organic electrode-based sodium ion full battery is demonstrated using 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (NTCDA) as raw material for the assembly of positive and negative electrodes. Both the electrodes exhibit excellent cycling stability and rate performance. The fabricated organic sodium ion full battery not only displays a high initial capacity of 157 mA h g-1 with an average battery voltage of 1.47 V under the current density of 100 mA g-1, but also delivers a high energy density of 254 W h kg-1 and a high power density of 614 W kg-1. These sodium ion batteries with organic positive and negative electrode materials can provide a new way for energy storage devices.

4.
Front Plant Sci ; 10: 58, 2019.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30778364

ABSTRACT

Leaf size (i.e., leaf surface area and leaf dry mass) profoundly affects a variety of biological carbon, water and energy processes. Therefore, the remarkable variability in individual leaf size and its trade-off with total leaf number in a plant have particularly important implications for understanding the adaption strategy of plants to environmental changes. The various leaf sizes of plants growing in the same habitat are expected to have distinct abilities of thermal regulation influencing leaf water loss and shedding heat. Here, we sampled 16 tree species co-occurring in a temperate forest in northeastern China to quantify the variation of leaf, stomata and twigs traits, and to determine the relationships of leaf size with leaf number and leaf water loss. We examined the right-skewed distributions of leaf size, leafing intensity, stomatal size and stomatal density across species. Leafing intensity was significantly negatively correlated with leaf size, accounting for 4 and 12% of variation in leaf area and leaf mass, respectively. Species was the most important factor in explaining the variation in leaf size (conditional R 2 of 0.92 for leaf area and 0.82 for leaf mass). Leaf area and mass significantly increased with increasing diameter of twigs. Leaf water loss was strongly negatively correlated with leaf area and leaf mass during the first four hours of the measurement. Leaf area and leaf mass accounted for 38 and 30% of variation in total leaf water loss, respectively. Leaf water loss rate (k) was significantly different among tree species and markedly linearly decreased with increasing leaf area and leaf mass for simple-leaved tree species. In conclusion, the existence of a cross-species trade-off between the size of individual leaves and the number of leaves per yearly twig unit was confirmed in that temperate forest. There was strongly negative correlation between leaf water loss and leaf size across tree species, which provides evidences for leaf size in leaf temperature regulation in dry environment with strong radiation. The size-dependent leaf water relation is of central importance to recognize the functional role of leaf size in a changing climate including rapid changes in air temperature and rainfall.

5.
Cereb Cortex ; 28(5): 1549-1567, 2018 05 01.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-28369392

ABSTRACT

Bimanual coordination is critical for a broad array of behaviors. Drummers, for example, must carefully coordinate movements of their 2 arms, sometimes beating on the same drum and sometimes on different ones. While coordinated behavior is well-studied, the early stages of planning are not well understood. In the parietal reach region (PRR) of the posterior parietal cortex (PPC), the presence of neurons that modulate when either arm moves by itself has been taken as evidence for a role in bimanual coordination. To test this notion, we recorded neurons during both unilateral and bimanual movements. We find that the activity that precedes an ipsilateral arm movement is primarily a sensory response to a target in the neuron's visual receptive field and not a plan to move the ipsilateral arm. In contrast, the activity that precedes a contralateral arm movement is the sum of a movement plan plus a sensory response. Despite not coding ipsilateral arm movements, about half of neurons discriminate between different patterns of bimanual movements. These results provide direct evidence that PRR neurons represent bimanual reach plans, and suggest that bimanual coordination originates in the sensory-to-motor processing stream prior to the motor cortex, within the PPC.


Subject(s)
Action Potentials/physiology , Functional Laterality/physiology , Hand/physiology , Movement/physiology , Neurons/physiology , Parietal Lobe/cytology , Psychomotor Performance/physiology , Animals , Eye Movements , Macaca mulatta , Magnetic Resonance Imaging , Male , Models, Statistical , Parietal Lobe/diagnostic imaging , Reaction Time/physiology , Support Vector Machine , Time Factors
6.
Front Plant Sci ; 8: 1691, 2017.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29018474

ABSTRACT

The variation in fine root traits in terms of size inequality at the individual root level can be identified as a strategy for adapting to the drastic changes in soil water and nutrient availabilities. The Gini and Lorenz asymmetry coefficients have been applied to describe the overall degree of size inequality, which, however, are neglected when conventional statistical means are calculated. Here, we used the Gini coefficient, Lorenz asymmetry coefficient and statistical mean in an investigation of Fraxinus mandschurica roots in a mixed mature Pinus koraiensis forest on Changbai Mountain, China. We analyzed 967 individual roots to determine the responses of length, diameter and area of the first-order roots and of branching intensity to 6 years of nitrogen addition (N), rainfall reduction (W) and their combination (NW). We found that first-order roots had a significantly greater average length and area but had smaller Gini coefficients in NW plots compared to in control plots (CK). Furthermore, the relationship between first-order root length and branching intensity was negative in CK, N, and W plots but positive in NW plots. The Lorenz asymmetry coefficient was >1 for the first-order root diameter in NW and W plots as well as for branching intensity in N plots. The bimodal frequency distribution of the first-order root length in NW plots differed clearly from the unimodal one in CK, N, and W plots. These results demonstrate that not only the mean but also the variation and the distribution mode of the first-order roots of F. mandschurica respond to soil nitrogen and water availability. The changes in size inequality of the first-order root traits suggest that Gini and Lorenz asymmetry coefficients can serve as informative parameters in ecological investigations of roots to improve our ability to predict how trees will respond to a changing climate at the individual root level.

7.
J Neurophysiol ; 112(3): 730-9, 2014 Aug 01.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-24848462

ABSTRACT

Studies of visually guided unimanual reaching have established that a saccade usually precedes each reach and that the reaction times (RTs) for the saccade and reach are highly correlated. The correlation of eye and hand RT is commonly taken as a measure of eye-hand coordination and is thought to assist visuospatial guidance of the hand. We asked what happens during a bimanual reach task. As with a unimanual reach, a saccade was executed first. Although latencies were fastest on unimanual trials, eye and hand RT correlation was identical whether just one or both hands reached to a single target. The average correlation was significantly reduced, however, when each hand reached simultaneously to a different target. We considered three factors that might explain the drop. We found that correlation strength depended on which hand reached first and on which hand reached to the same target as the saccade. Surprisingly, these two factors were largely independent, and the identity of the hand, left or right, had little effect. Eye-hand correlation was similar to that seen with unimanual reaching only when the hand that moved to the same target as the saccade was also the first hand to move. Thus both timing as well as spatial pattern are important in determining eye-hand coordination.


Subject(s)
Eye , Hand , Psychomotor Performance , Saccades , Animals , Functional Laterality , Macaca mulatta , Male , Reaction Time , Time Factors
8.
J Neurophysiol ; 111(3): 520-32, 2014 Feb.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-24198328

ABSTRACT

Primates frequently reach toward visual targets. Neurons in early visual areas respond to stimuli in the contralateral visual hemifield and without regard to which limb will be used to reach toward that target. In contrast, neurons in motor areas typically respond when reaches are performed using the contralateral limb and with minimal regard to the visuospatial location of the target. The parietal reach region (PRR) is located early in the visuomotor processing hierarchy. PRR neurons are significantly modulated when targets for either limb or eye movement appear, similar to early sensory areas; however, they respond to targets in either visual field, similar to motor areas. The activity could reflect the subject's attentional locus, movement of a specific effector, or a related function, such as coordinating eye-arm movements. To examine the role of PRR in the visuomotor pathway, we reversibly inactivated PRR. Inactivation effects were specific to contralateral limb movements, leaving ipsilateral limb and saccadic movements intact. Neither visual hemifield bias nor visual attention deficits were observed. Thus our results are consistent with a motoric rather than visual organization in PRR, despite its early location in the visuomotor pathway. We found no effects on the temporal coupling of coordinated saccades and reaches, suggesting that this mechanism lies downstream of PRR. In sum, this study clarifies the role of PRR in the visuomotor hierarchy: despite its early position, it is a limb-specific area influencing reach planning and is positioned upstream from an active eye-hand coordination-coupling mechanism.


Subject(s)
Hand/physiology , Parietal Lobe/physiology , Psychomotor Performance , Saccades , Animals , Attention , Hand/innervation , Macaca mulatta , Male
9.
PLoS One ; 7(4): e35076, 2012.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-22493732

ABSTRACT

For both ecologists and physiologists, foliar physioecology as a function of spatially and temporally variable environmental factors such as sunlight exposure within a tree crown is important for understanding whole tree physiology and for predicting ecosystem carbon balance and productivity. Hence, we studied concentrations of nitrogen (N), non-structural carbohydrates (NSC = soluble sugars + starch), and δ(13)C in different-aged needles within Pinus koraiensis tree crowns, to understand the needle age- and crown position-related physiology, in order to test the hypothesis that concentrations of N, NSC, and δ(13)C are needle-age and crown position dependent (more light, more photosynthesis affecting N, NSC, and δ(13)C), and to develop an accurate sampling strategy. The present study indicated that the 1-yr-old needles had significantly higher concentration levels of mobile carbohydrates (both on a mass and an area basis) and N(area) (on an area basis), as well as NSC-N ratios, but significantly lower levels of N(mass) (on a mass basis) concentration and specific leaf area (SLA), compared to the current-year needles. Azimuthal (south-facing vs. north-facing crown side) effects were found to be significant on starch [both on a mass (ST(mass)) and an area basis (ST(area))], δ(13)C values, and N(area), with higher levels in needles on the S-facing crown side than the N-facing crown side. Needle N(mass) concentrations significantly decreased but needle ST(mass), ST(area), and δ(13)C values significantly increased with increasing vertical crown levels. Our results suggest that the sun-exposed crown position related to photosynthetic activity and water availability affects starch accumulation and carbon isotope discrimination. Needle age associated with physiological activity plays an important role in determining carbon and nitrogen physiology. The present study indicates that across-scale sampling needs to carefully select tissue samples with equal age from a comparable crown position.


Subject(s)
Carbohydrates/physiology , Nitrogen/physiology , Photosynthesis/physiology , Pinus/physiology , Plant Leaves/physiology , Carbon Isotopes/metabolism , Ecosystem , Mass Spectrometry , Starch/metabolism , Sunlight , Time Factors , Water/metabolism
10.
PLoS One ; 7(3): e31042, 2012.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-22412833

ABSTRACT

Knowledge of the responses of soil nitrogen (N) availability, fine root mass, production and turnover rates to atmospheric N deposition is crucial for understanding fine root dynamics and functioning in forest ecosystems. Fine root biomass and necromass, production and turnover rates, and soil nitrate-N and ammonium-N in relation to N fertilization (50 kg N ha(-1) year(-1)) were investigated in a temperate forest over the growing season of 2010, using sequential soil cores and ingrowth cores methods. N fertilization increased soil nitrate-N by 16% (P<0.001) and ammonium-N by 6% (P<0.01) compared to control plots. Fine root biomass and necromass in 0-20 cm soil were 13% (4.61 vs. 5.23 Mg ha(-1), P<0.001) and 34% (1.39 vs. 1.86 Mg ha(-1), P<0.001) less in N fertilization plots than those in control plots. The fine root mass was significantly negatively correlated with soil N availability and nitrate-N contents, especially in 0-10 cm soil layer. Both fine root production and turnover rates increased with N fertilization, indicating a rapid underground carbon cycling in environment with high nitrogen levels. Although high N supply has been widely recognized to promote aboveground growth rates, the present study suggests that high levels of nitrogen supply may reduce the pool size of the underground carbon. Hence, we conclude that high levels of atmospheric N deposition will stimulate the belowground carbon cycling, leading to changes in the carbon balance between aboveground and underground storage. The implications of the present study suggest that carbon model and prediction need to take the effects of nitrogen deposition on underground system into account.


Subject(s)
Fertilization , Nitrogen/chemistry , Pinus/growth & development , Plant Roots/chemistry , Plant Roots/growth & development , Soil/chemistry , Trees/growth & development , Biomass , China , Ecosystem , Nitrates/chemistry , Pinus/chemistry , Quaternary Ammonium Compounds/chemistry , Seasons , Time Factors
11.
PLoS One ; 5(12): e15134, 2010 Dec 06.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-21151897

ABSTRACT

Knowledge of soil respiration and photosynthesis under elevated CO(2) is crucial for exactly understanding and predicting the carbon balance in forest ecosystems in a rapid CO(2)-enriched world. Quercus mongolica Fischer ex Ledebour seedlings were planted in open-top chambers exposed to elevated CO(2) (EC = 500 µmol mol(-1)) and ambient CO(2) (AC = 370 µmol mol(-1)) from 2005 to 2008. Daily, seasonal and inter-annual variations in soil respiration and photosynthetic assimilation were measured during 2007 and 2008 growing seasons. EC significantly stimulated the daytime soil respiration by 24.5% (322.4 at EC vs. 259.0 mg CO(2) m(-2) hr(-1) at AC) in 2007 and 21.0% (281.2 at EC vs. 232.6 mg CO(2) m(-2) hr(-1) at AC) in 2008, and increased the daytime CO(2) assimilation by 28.8% (624.1 at EC vs. 484.6 mg CO(2) m(-2) hr(-1) at AC) across the two growing seasons. The temporal variation in soil respiration was positively correlated with the aboveground photosynthesis, soil temperature, and soil water content at both EC and AC. EC did not affect the temperature sensitivity of soil respiration. The increased daytime soil respiration at EC resulted mainly from the increased aboveground photosynthesis. The present study indicates that increases in CO(2) fixation of plants in a CO(2)-rich world will rapidly return to the atmosphere by increased soil respiration.


Subject(s)
Carbon Dioxide/chemistry , Cell Respiration , Quercus/physiology , Trees/physiology , Ecosystem , Photosynthesis , Plant Leaves/physiology , Plant Physiological Phenomena , Plant Roots/metabolism , Seasons , Seedlings , Soil , Temperature
12.
Ying Yong Sheng Tai Xue Bao ; 21(7): 1627-34, 2010 Jul.
Article in Chinese | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-20879516

ABSTRACT

Geostatistic methods were applied to study the spatial heterogeneity of top soil (0 - 10 cm) ammonium N and nitrate N in a broadleaved-Korean pine mixed forest of Changbai Mountains, Northeast China. The semi-variogram of soil ammonium N and nitrate N could be well fitted by spherical or Gaussian model. The spatial distribution of soil ammonium N and nitrate N all exhibited moderate autocorrelation, with the structural ratio being 0.70% - 41.47% and 32.26% - 52.66%, and the autocorrelation degree of soil ammonium N was smaller than that of soil nitrate N, with the variation distance being 8.87 and 9.76 m, respectively. Spatially, soil ammonium N and nitrate N were distributed in patches, and the spatial heterogeneity of soil ammonium N was higher than that of soil nitrate N. There was a significant negative correlation between soil nitrate N and soil moisture content, while soil ammonium N had less correlation with soil moisture.


Subject(s)
Ecosystem , Nitrogen/analysis , Pinus/growth & development , Soil/analysis , China , Nitrates/analysis , Nitrates/chemistry , Quaternary Ammonium Compounds/analysis , Quaternary Ammonium Compounds/chemistry , Tilia/growth & development
13.
Ying Yong Sheng Tai Xue Bao ; 21(3): 583-9, 2010 Mar.
Article in Chinese | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-20560311

ABSTRACT

Geostatistic method was applied to study the spatial distribution of woody plant fine root biomass in a natural broad-leaved Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) mixed forest soil in Changbai Mountain. The investigation was carried out in three selected plots, sized 50 m x 50 m, in 2008. In the three plots, the living fine root biomass in surface soil (0-20 cm) was 3.195, 1.930, and 2.085 t x hm(-2), and the dead fine root biomass was 0.971 0.581, and 0.790 t x hm(-2), respectively. In 0-10 cm soil layer, the living fine root biomass had no correlation with the dead fine root biomass; but in 10-20 cm soil layer, a significant positive correlation was found between them (r = 0.352, P < 0.05). The variograms of living fine root biomass and dead fine root biomass could be well fitted by spherical model. Spatial variation explained more than 70% of the total variance of fine root biomass across three plots. The regressed ranges were 5.2, 14. 6, and 9.8 m for living fine root biomass, and 4.3, 20.4, and 20.1 m for dead fine root biomass in plots 1, 2, and 3, respectively. For comparison, Bayesian method was also used to estimate the ranges for the fine root biomass. The results obtained by geostatistic method and Bayesian method were consistent with each other.


Subject(s)
Biomass , Pinus/growth & development , Plant Roots/growth & development , Soil/analysis , Bayes Theorem , China
14.
Exp Brain Res ; 167(3): 446-50, 2005 Dec.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-16283404

ABSTRACT

Since specific benzodiazepine (Bz) binding sites have been found in the vision and oculomotor control areas of the central nervous system (CNS), the fast phases of optokinetic nystagmus (OKN) should be affected by Bz administration. In this study, we examine the effects of Bzs on OKN fast phases under closed- and open-loop experimental conditions. Six normal subjects participated in the experiments. The eye movements were measured by the magnetic field, search coil technique, 90 min after diazepam or placebo administration. The study was performed in a randomized, double-blind fashion. After diazepam, the mean amplitude (MAmp) and mean peak velocity (MVel) of OKN fast phases decreased significantly under both experimental conditions. The percentage decreases in MAmp and MVel under the open-loop condition were significantly larger than those under the closed-loop condition. The results indicate that the fast phases of OKN could sensitively reflect the pharmacodynamic effects of Bzs on the CNS.


Subject(s)
Diazepam/pharmacology , Hypnotics and Sedatives/pharmacology , Nystagmus, Optokinetic/drug effects , Adult , Data Interpretation, Statistical , Eye Movements , Feedback/physiology , Humans , Male , Photic Stimulation , Psychomotor Performance/drug effects
15.
Exp Brain Res ; 163(2): 246-51, 2005 May.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-15818500

ABSTRACT

Saccadic latency is composed of separate sensory and motor processing delays. Therefore, any alteration in the sensory processing should effect the saccadic latency. Because the highest density of benzodiazepine (Bz) binding sites is located in cerebral cortex, sensory processing of stimuli in this cortical area is expected to be substantially effected by administration of Bzs. It is well known that sensory processing of binocular disparity occurs in the cerebral cortical areas and therefore the latency of saccades to stimuli defined by binocular disparity should be substantially affected by Bz intake. In this study, we tested this prediction by comparing the latency of saccadic eye movements for binocular disparity defined stimuli (stereo stimuli) with those for luminance contrast defined stimuli (luminance stimuli), after diazepam or placebo. Eye movements were mainly recorded by use of the magnetic search coil technique, and the study was performed in a randomized, double-blind way. Although diazepam prolonged the latency of saccades for stereo and luminance stimuli, the percentage increases in saccadic latency for the stereo stimuli were significantly larger than those for the luminance stimuli. Saccadic peak velocity, and saccadic amplitude, also significantly decreased after diazepam under conditions of stereo and luminance stimuli. However, there was no significant difference for either saccadic peak velocity or amplitude between the two types of target. The results suggest that the latency of saccades to binocular disparity defined random-dot stimuli could more sensitively reflect the pharmacodynamic effects of Bzs on the cerebral cortex.


Subject(s)
Cerebral Cortex/drug effects , Contrast Sensitivity/drug effects , Diazepam/pharmacology , Reaction Time/drug effects , Saccades/drug effects , Vision Disparity/drug effects , Adult , Cerebral Cortex/physiology , Contrast Sensitivity/physiology , Humans , Hypnotics and Sedatives/pharmacology , Lighting , Photic Stimulation , Reaction Time/physiology , Saccades/physiology , Vision Disparity/physiology
16.
Spat Vis ; 16(5): 407-18, 2003.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-14998116

ABSTRACT

When gratings moving in different directions are presented separately to the two eyes, we typically perceive periods of the combination of motion in the two eyes as well as periods of one or the other monocular motions. To investigate whether such interocular motion combination is determined by the intersection-of-constraints (IOC) or vector average mechanism, we recorded both optokinetic nystagmus eye movements (OKN) and perception during dichoptic presentation of moving gratings and random-dot patterns with various differences of interocular motion direction. For moving gratings, OKN alternately tracks not only the direction of the two monocular motions but also the direction of their combined motion. The OKN in the combined motion direction is highly correlated with the perceived direction of combined motion; its velocity complies with the IOC rule rather than the vector average of the dichoptic motion stimuli. For moving random-dot patterns, both OKN and perceived motion alternate only between the directions of the two monocular motions. These results suggest that interocular motion combination in dichoptic gratings is determined by the IOC and depends on their form.


Subject(s)
Eye Movements/physiology , Motion Perception/physiology , Nystagmus, Optokinetic/physiology , Visual Pathways/physiology , Adult , Humans , Pattern Recognition, Visual/physiology , Photic Stimulation/methods
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