Development and Validation of a Formative Assessment Tool for Nephrology Fellows' Clinical Reasoning.

BACKGROUND: Diagnostic errors are commonly driven by failures in clinical reasoning. Deficits in clinical reasoning are common among graduate medical learners, including nephrology fellows. We created and validated an instrument to assess clinical reasoning in a national cohort of nephrology fellows and established performance thresholds for remedial coaching. METHODS: Experts in nephrology education and clinical reasoning remediation designed an instrument to measure clinical reasoning through a written patient encounter note from a web-based, simulated AKI consult. The instrument measured clinical reasoning in three domains: problem representation, differential diagnosis with justification, and diagnostic plan with justification. Inter-rater reliability was established in a pilot cohort ( n =7 raters) of first-year nephrology fellows using a two-way random effects agreement intraclass correlation coefficient model. The instrument was then administered to a larger cohort of first-year fellows to establish performance standards for coaching using the Hofstee method ( n =6 raters). RESULTS: In the pilot cohort, there were 15 fellows from four training program, and in the study cohort, there were 61 fellows from 20 training programs. The intraclass correlation coefficients for problem representation, differential diagnosis, and diagnostic plan were 0.90, 0.70, and 0.50, respectively. Passing thresholds (% total points) in problem representation, differential diagnosis, and diagnostic plan were 59%, 57%, and 62%, respectively. Fifty-nine percent ( n =36) met the threshold for remedial coaching in at least one domain. CONCLUSIONS: We provide validity evidence for a simulated AKI consult for formative assessment of clinical reasoning in nephrology fellows. Most fellows met criteria for coaching in at least one of three reasoning domains, demonstrating a need for learner assessment and instruction in clinical reasoning.

REACT: Rapid Evaluation Assessment of Clinical Reasoning Tool.

INTRODUCTION: Clinical reasoning encompasses the process of data collection, synthesis, and interpretation to generate a working diagnosis and make management decisions. Situated cognition theory suggests that knowledge is relative to contextual factors, and clinical reasoning in urgent situations is framed by pressure of consequential, time-sensitive decision-making for diagnosis and management. These unique aspects of urgent clinical care may limit the effectiveness of traditional tools to assess, teach, and remediate clinical reasoning. METHODS: Using two validated frameworks, a multidisciplinary group of clinicians trained to remediate clinical reasoning and with experience in urgent clinical care encounters designed the novel Rapid Evaluation Assessment of Clinical Reasoning Tool (REACT). REACT is a behaviorally anchored assessment tool scoring five domains used to provide formative feedback to learners evaluating patients during urgent clinical situations. A pilot study was performed to assess fourth-year medical students during simulated urgent clinical scenarios. Learners were scored using REACT by a separate, multidisciplinary group of clinician educators with no additional training in the clinical reasoning process. REACT scores were analyzed for internal consistency across raters and observations. RESULTS: Overall internal consistency for the 41 patient simulations as measured by Cronbach's alpha was 0.86. A weighted kappa statistic was used to assess the overall score inter-rater reliability. Moderate reliability was observed at 0.56. DISCUSSION: To our knowledge, REACT is the first tool designed specifically for formative assessment of a learner's clinical reasoning performance during simulated urgent clinical situations. With evidence of reliability and content validity, this tool guides feedback to learners during high-risk urgent clinical scenarios, with the goal of reducing diagnostic and management errors to limit patient harm.

Characterization of Clinical Skills Remediation: A National Survey of Medical Schools.

OBJECTIVES: Clinical skills instruction is a standard part of medical school curricula, but how institutions address learners who struggle in this area is less clear. Although recommendations for the remediation of clinical skills at an institutional level have been published, how these recommendations are being implemented on a national scale is unknown. In this descriptive study, we characterize current clinical skills remediation practices at US medical schools and US-accredited Caribbean medical schools. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional survey of medical educators who work with struggling students. From March 24, 2020 to April 9, 2020, the Directors of Clinical Skills Remediation Working Group conducted an e-mail survey incorporating four aspects of remediation program design and function: identification, assessment, active remediation, and ongoing evaluation. RESULTS: In total, 92 individuals representing 45 institutions provided descriptive information about their respective remediation programs. The majority of respondents have a formal process of identifying (75%) and assessing (86%) students who are identified as struggling with clinical skills, but lack a standardized method of categorizing deficits. Fewer institutions have a standardized approach to active remediation and ongoing evaluation of struggling learners. Fifty-two percent of institutions provide training to faculty involved in the remediation process. CONCLUSIONS: Although most institutions are able to identify struggling students, they lack a standardized approach to intervene. Remediation effectiveness is limited by a lack of student buy-in and institutional time, expertise, and resources. These findings highlight the need for more formalized structure and standardization in remediation program design and implementation.

Nephrology Fellows' and Program Directors' Perceptions of Hospital Rounds in the United States.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Hospital rounds are a traditional vehicle for patient-care delivery and experiential learning for trainees. We aimed to characterize practices and perceptions of rounds in United States nephrology training programs. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS: We conducted a national survey of United States nephrology fellows and program directors. Fellows received the survey after completing the 2019 National Board of Medical Examiners Nephrology In-Training Exam. Program directors received the survey at the American Society of Nephrology's 2019 Nephrology Training Program Directors' Retreat. Surveys assessed the structure and perceptions of rounds, focusing on workload, workflow, value for patient care, and fellows' clinical skill-building. Directors were queried about their expectations for fellow prerounds and efficiency of rounds. Responses were quantified by proportions. RESULTS: Fellow and program director response rates were 73% (n=621) and 70% (n=55). Most fellows (74%) report a patient census of >15, arrive at the hospital before 7:00 am (59%), and complete progress notes after 5:00 pm (46%). Among several rounding activities, fellows most valued bedside discussions for building their clinical skills (34%), but only 30% examine all patients with the attending at the bedside. Most directors (71%) expect fellows to both examine patients and collect data before attending-rounds. A majority (78%) of directors commonly complete their documentation after 5:00 pm, and for 36%, after 8:00 pm. Like fellows, directors most value bedside discussion for development of fellows' clinical skills (44%). Lack of preparedness for the rigors of nephrology fellowship was the most-cited barrier to efficient rounds (31%). CONCLUSIONS: Hospital rounds in United States nephrology training programs are characterized by high patient volumes, early-morning starts, and late-evening clinical documentation. Fellows use a variety of prerounding styles and examine patients at the beside with their attendings at different frequencies. PODCAST: This article contains a podcast at https://www.asn-online.org/media/podcast/CJASN/2020_03_17_CJN.10190819.mp3.

A Guide to Management of Sleepiness in ESKD.

Daytime sleepiness, also known as hypersomnolence, is common among patients receiving maintenance dialysis and following successful kidney transplantation. Sleepiness may be secondary to medical comorbid conditions, medication side effect, insufficient sleep syndrome, and sleep-disordered breathing or the result of a primary central disorder of hypersomnolence, such as narcolepsy. Unrecognized and untreated sleep disorders are associated with substantial morbidity and mortality among patients with end-stage kidney disease. Effective management of hypersomnolence can improve quality of life in patients with kidney disease. This review focuses on the principal causes of sleepiness in patients with end-stage kidney disease. Awareness of these disorders by treating nephrologists is crucial. This review provides a systematic approach to guide providers through the recognition, early diagnosis, and treatment of hypersomnolence, which is commonly encountered in this patient population. Areas of future research are also suggested.

Mental Health Conditions Among Struggling GME Learners: Results From a Single Center Remediation Program.

BACKGROUND: Graduate medical education (GME) learners may struggle with clinical performance during training. A subset of these trainees has mental health conditions (MHCs). OBJECTIVE: To characterize the MHCs that underlie poor trainee performance and their relationship to specific clinical performance deficit (CPD). METHODS: At the University of Virginia (UVA), GME learners not meeting appropriate milestones, or who request help, have the option to self-refer or be referred to COACH (Committee on Achieving Competence Through Help). A physician remediation expert assesses the learner and identifies a primary CPD. If there is concern for an MHC, referral is made to a psychologist with expertise in working with trainees. All learners are offered remediation for the CPD. Using descriptive statistics, we tracked the prevalence of MHC and their correlation with specific CPDs. RESULTS: Between 2016 and 2019, COACH assessed 7% (61 of 820) of GME learners at UVA. Thirty-eight percent (23 of 61) had an MHC associated with the CPD. Anxiety was the most common MHC (48%), followed by depression (17%), cognitive dysfunction (17%), adjustment disorder (13%), and other (4%). Professionalism was the most identified CPD among learners with MHCs (52%). Of remediated learners, 47% have successfully finished remediation, 21% were terminated or voluntarily left their program, and 32% are still being remediated (83% of whom are in good standing). CONCLUSIONS: MHCs were identified in nearly 40% of struggling learners referred to a centralized remediation program. Professionalism is the most identified CPD among learners with MHCs.

Lessons in clinical reasoning - pitfalls, myths, and pearls: a case of chest pain and shortness of breath.

Background Defects in human cognition commonly result in clinical reasoning failures that can lead to diagnostic errors. A metacognitive structured reflection on what clinical findings fit and/or do not fit with likely and "can't miss" diagnoses may reduce such errors. Case presentation A 57-year-old man was sent to the emergency department from clinic with chest pain, severe shortness of breath, weakness, and cold sweats. Further investigation revealed multiple risk factors for coronary artery disease, sudden onset of exertional dyspnea, and chest pain that incompletely resolved with rest, mild tachycardia and hypoxia, an abnormal electrocardiogram (ECG), elevated serum cardiac biomarkers, and elevated B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) in the absence of left-sided heart failure. He was treated for acute coronary syndrome (ACS), discharged, and quickly returned with worsening symptoms that eventually led to a diagnosis of submassive pulmonary embolism (PE). Conclusions Through integrated commentary on the diagnostic reasoning process from clinical reasoning experts at two institutions, this case underscores the importance of frequent assessment of fit along with explicit explanation of dissonant features in order to avoid premature closure and diagnostic error. A fishbone diagram is provided to visually demonstrate the major factors that contributed to the diagnostic error. A case discussant describes the importance of diagnostic schema as an analytic reasoning strategy to assist in the creation of a differential diagnosis, problem representation to summarize updated findings, a Popperian analytic approach of attempting to falsify less-likely hypotheses, and matching pertinent positives and negatives to previously learned illness scripts. Finally, this case provides clinical teaching points in addition to a pitfall, myth, and pearl specific to premature closure.

Simple Frameworks for Daily Work: Innovative Strategies to Coach Residents Struggling With Time Management, Organization, and Efficiency.

BACKGROUND: Organization and efficiency are central to success on busy inpatient services and may be relevant to demonstrating certain milestones. Most residents adopt these skills by observing supervisors and peers. For some, this method of emulation and adaptation does not occur, with the potential for a negative effect on patient care and team morale. Information on effective strategies for remediating organization and efficiency deficits is lacking. OBJECTIVE: We explored the major themes of organization and efficiency referred to the University of Pennsylvania Department of Medicine Early Intervention and Remediation Committee (EIRC), and developed tools for their remediation. METHODS: Assessments of residents and fellows referred to the EIRC between July 2014 and October 2016 were reviewed for organization and efficiency deficits. Common areas were identified, and an iterative process of learner observations and expert input was used to develop remediation tools. RESULTS: Over a 2-year period, the EIRC developed remediation plans for 4% of residents (13 of 342 total residents), and for 1 internal medicine subspecialty fellow. Organization and efficiency was the primary or secondary deficit in more than half of those assessed. Most common deficiencies involved admitting a patient efficiently, performing effective prerounding, and composing daily progress notes/presentations. Remediation tools that provided deconstruction of tasks to their most granular and reproducible components were effective in improving performance. CONCLUSIONS: Deficits in organization and efficiency can disproportionately affect resident performance and delay milestone achievement. Many residents would benefit from detailed frameworks and assistance with new approaches to basic elements of daily work.

Comprehensive Assessment of Struggling Learners Referred to a Graduate Medical Education Remediation Program.

BACKGROUND: Implementation of the Next Accreditation System has provided a standardized framework for identifying learners not meeting milestones, but there is as yet no corresponding framework for remediation. OBJECTIVE: We developed a comprehensive assessment process that allows correct diagnosis of a struggling learner's deficit(s) to promote successful remediation. METHODS: At the University of Pennsylvania, resident learners within the Department of Medicine who are not meeting milestones are referred to the Early Intervention Remediation Committee (EIRC). The EIRC, composed of 14 faculty members with expertise in remediation, uses a standardized process to assess learners' deficits. These faculty members categorize primary deficits as follows: medical knowledge, clinical reasoning, organization and efficiency, professionalism, and communication skills. The standardized process of assessment includes an analysis of the learner's file, direct communication with evaluators, an interview focused on learner perception of the problem, screening for underlying medical or psychosocial issues, and a review of systems for deficits in the 6 core competencies. Participants were surveyed after participating in this process. RESULTS: Over a 2-year period, the EIRC assessed and developed remediation plans for 4% of learners (14 of a total 342). Following remediation and reassessment, the identified problems were satisfactorily resolved in all cases with no disciplinary action. While the process was time intensive, an average of 45 hours per learner, the majority of faculty and residents rated it as positive and beneficial. CONCLUSIONS: This structured assessment process identifies targeted areas for remediation and adds to the tools available to Clinical Competency Committees.

An Interactive Ambulatory Nephrology Curriculum for Internal Medicine Interns: Design, Implementation, and Participant Feedback.

While diminishing nephrology fellow recruitment is a known issue, more work is needed to evaluate possible interventions to reverse this trend. We designed and implemented a curriculum to increase exposure to ambulatory nephrology among internal medicine interns. The curriculum focused on key aspects of outpatient nephrology practice, including supervised clinic visits, formal themed didactic content, and an online interactive forum with assigned evidence-based readings and small-group responses to relevant cases. We obtained postcourse surveys from all participating interns. Of the 43 interns who took part in the first year of the ambulatory nephrology curriculum, 100% reported a positive didactic experience and 91% reported a positive interactive online experience. 77% reported an improvement in their familiarity with clinical nephrology practice (median 2-point increase in familiarity score on a 7-point scale, P<0.001 by signed rank testing). Qualitative feedback included praise for the high-yield topics covered by the lectures and energizing teachers. In conclusion, we successfully implemented an ambulatory nephrology curriculum using a framework that integrated formal didactics, interactive online learning, and key clinical components of outpatient nephrology care. Future investigation will evaluate whether early implementation of this curriculum is associated with increased pursuit of nephrology as a career.

Selection and Postoperative Care of the Living Donor.

Live organ donors typically consult their primary care providers when considering live donation and then return for follow-up after surgery and for ongoing primary care. Live liver and kidney transplants are performed routinely as a method to shorten the waiting time for a recipient, provide a healthy organ for transplant, and increase recipient survival. Careful medical and psychosocial evaluation of the potential donor is imperative to minimize harm. This evaluation must be performed by an experienced live donor medical team. Routine health care with careful attention to weight maintenance, cardiovascular health, and prevention of diabetes and hypertension is paramount.

An Unusual yet "Mg"nificent Indication for Hemodialysis.

Hypermagnesemia is an uncommon electrolyte abnormality, due to the fact that magnesium toxicity is only seen in the setting of a massive exposure to exogenous magnesium, often in the setting of renal insufficiency. Here, we report a case of severe hypermagnesemia that resulted in complete paralysis that was secondary to Renacidin administration, a rarely used agent used for intra-renal pelvic or intra-vesicular instillation dissolution of struvite stones. The patient also had concurrent acute kidney injury (AKI). The patient's magnesium was as high as 16.7 mg/dL, and he initially received hemodialysis followed by continuous venovenous hemodialysis. These therapies resulted in a rapid reduction in magnesium levels and eventual resolution of the muscular weakness. The case discussion highlights several key aspects of magnesium homeostasis, the limited mechanistic understanding of Renacidin-induced hypermagnesemia, and the role of renal replacement therapies in the treatment of hypermagnesemia.

Propagating the nephrology research workforce: a Kidney Research National Dialogue training commentary.

The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases conducted the Kidney Research National Dialogue as an interactive means to formulate and prioritize research goals necessary to address the needs of patients with renal disease. This commentary summarizes the discussion and priorities arising from the training domain of the dialogue and posits three overall strategies to broaden the nephrology research workforce pipeline. The community needs to recruit and provide support for mentors in nephrology, target medical and graduate students earlier in their education for exposure to renal research, and expand the research workforce to include basic scientists from many disciplines as well as under-represented minorities.

Localization of water-soluble carbohydrates in wheat stems using imaging matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry.

The pool of endogenous water-soluble oligosaccharides found in the stems of wheat (Triticum aestivum) is being investigated as a potential indicator of grain yield. Techniques such as liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry (LC-MS) can profile these analytes but provide no spatial information regarding their distribution in the wheat stem. The imaging matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry technique has not been utilized for the analysis of oligosaccharides in plant systems previously. Imaging MALDI mass spectrometry was used to analyse cross and longitudinal sections from the stems of Triticum aestivum. A range of oligosaccharides up to Hex(11) were observed. Water-soluble oligosaccharides were ionized as potassiated molecules, and found to be located in the stem pith that is retained predominantly around the inner stem wall. Imaging MALDI analyses provided spatial information on endogenous oligosaccharides present in wheat stems. The technique was found to offer comparable sensitivities for oligosaccharide detection to those of our established LC-MS method, and has potential for broad application in studying the in situ localization of other compound types in plant material.

24-week oral ganciclovir prophylaxis in kidney recipients is associated with reduced symptomatic cytomegalovirus disease compared to a 12-week course.

BACKGROUND: Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is associated with reduced graft and patient survival among kidney recipients. The highest risk of CMV infection occurs in CMV-naive recipients of kidneys from seropositive donors (D+/R-). Optimal CMV prophylaxis is not established. This prospective cohort study compared the safety and efficacy of prophylaxis with 12 versus 24 weeks of oral ganciclovir. METHODS: We prospectively administered 24 weeks ganciclovir to 31 D+/R- recipients. The control group comprised 39 patients transplanted in the immediately preceding era who received a 12-week course of prophylaxis. All patients received cytolytic therapy within the first month, as well as a tacrolimus-based maintenance regimen. A logistic regression model was fit to examine the relationship between 24 weeks ganciclovir prophylaxis and the odds of developing CMV infection by one year. RESULTS: Groups were matched, though the 12-week cohort had more delayed graft function than their 24-week counterparts (45% vs. 29%, P=0.04). CMV infection occurred in 31% and 7% patients in the 12-week and 24-week groups, respectively (P