Violent and prosocial music: Evidence for the impact of lyrics and musical tone on aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Although there is a large research base on the psychological impacts of violent and prosocial visual media, there is little research addressing the impacts of violent and prosocial music, and which facets of the music have the greatest impact. Four experiments tested the impact of lyrics and/or musical tone on aggressive and prosocial behavior, and on underlying psychological processes, using purpose-built songs to avoid the effect of music-related confounds. In study one, where mildly aggressive, overtly aggressive and violent lyrics were compared to neutral lyrics, any level of lyrical aggression caused an increase in behavioral aggression, which plateaued for all three aggression conditions. Violent lyrics were better recalled than other lyrics one week later. In studies two-three no significant effects of lyrics, or of aggressive versus nonaggressive musical tone, were found on aggressive or prosocial behavior. In terms of internal states, violent lyrics increased hostility/hostile cognitions in all studies, and negatively impacted affective state in three studies. Prosocial lyrics decreased hostility/hostile cognitions in three studies, but always in tandem with another factor. Aggressive musical tone increased physiological arousal in two studies and increased negative affect in one. In study four those who listened to violent lyrics drove more aggressively on a simulated drive that included triggers for aggression. Overall, violent lyrics consistently elicited hostility/hostile cognitions and negative affect, but these did not always translate to aggressive behavior. Violent music seems more likely to elicit behavioral aggression when there are aggression triggers and a clear way to aggress. Implications are discussed.

Neuropsychological Deficits in Disordered Screen Use Behaviours: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Over the last few decades, excessive and disordered screen use has become more prevalent, prompting investigations into its associated consequences. The extent to which disordered screen use behaviours impact neuropsychological functioning has been reportedly mixed and at times inconsistent. This review sought to synthesise the literature and estimate the magnitude of overall cognitive impairment across a wide range of disordered screen use behaviours. We also sought to determine the cognitive domains most impacted, and whether the observed impairments were moderated by the classification of screen-related behaviours (i.e., Internet or gaming) or the format of cognitive test administration (i.e., paper-and-pencil or computerised). A systematic search of databases (Embase, PsycINFO, MEDLINE) identified 43 cross-sectional articles that assessed neuropsychological performance in disordered screen use populations, 34 of which were included in the meta-analysis. A random-effects meta-analysis revealed significant small/medium (g = .38) cognitive deficits for individuals with disordered screen use behaviours relative to controls. The most affected cognitive domain with a significant medium effect size (g = .50) was attention and focus followed by a significant reduction in executive functioning (g = .31). The classification of disordered screen use behaviours into Internet or gaming categories or the format of cognitive testing did not moderate these deficits. Additionally, excluding disordered social media use in an exploratory analysis had little effect on the observed outcomes. This study highlights a number of methodological considerations that may have contributed to disparate findings and shows that disordered screen use can significantly impact cognitive performance. Recommendations for future research are also discussed. Data for this study can be found at https://osf.io/upeha/ .

Who is Most at Risk for Developing Physical Aggression After Playing Violent Video Games? An Individual Differences Perspective From Early Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood.

Many theories of development suggest that playing violent video games would not impact all adolescents the same way, yet empirical research is sparse. To date there have been no within-subjects analyses that examine which adolescents are most at risk for developing aggression after playing violent video games and under what context, and no longitudinal studies encompassing multiple developmental stages (i.e., early adolescence to emerging adulthood) that examine the long-term effects of playing violent video games. To address this gap, the current study used a longitudinal design (spanning 8 years and encompassing multiple developmental periods) with a sample of U.S. adolescents who completed questionnaires on aggression, video gaming, and multiple risk and protective factors for aggression. Participants included 488 adolescents (M age = 13.82, SD = 1.03 at the initial wave, 51% female, with 65% being White, 12% Black, 19% multiethnic, and 4% other). Mixture regression was utilized to model physical aggression over time and to examine how playing violent video games might be related to aggression on an individual level. There were four classes: "Multi-risk", "High Gaming, High Aggression" (both of which had high levels of aggression over time), "Moderate Risk", and "Low Risk, High Privilege" (both of which had lower levels of aggression over time). Individuals were most aggressive with multiple risk factors or higher levels of violent game play and playing violent video games likely increased aggression more in individuals with other gaming problems and in males with low self-regulation. The results are discussed using a balanced perspective and recognize that violent video games do not affect all adolescents the same way. This research has direct implications for designing interventions around reducing aggressive behavior among adolescents.

Social comparisons: A potential mechanism linking problematic social media use with depression.

Background and aims: The majority of Australians are regular users of social media, especially young adults. Of concern, is that a minority of people appear to use social media in an addictive or problematic way which is associated with negative psychological outcomes such as depression. Social comparisons, where users compare themselves to others on social media, have also been linked with depression. Therefore, the key aim of the study was to determine whether social comparisons mediate the relationship between Problematic Social Media Use (PSMU) and depression. Method: In a two-part study 144 participants (65 females) answered a series of self-report questions assessing factors relating to PSMU and then came into the lab to view a series of social media images, (pre-tested to be upward or downward comparisons). Results: Females used social media more problematically, liked more upward than downward comparison images and compared themselves more negatively to others on social media than did males. Higher PSMU scores were associated with depression and low self-esteem and comparing oneself more negatively to others on social media. Finally, focusing on upward comparisons and a tendency to make negative comparisons to others on social media partially mediated the association between PSMU and depression. Discussion and conclusions: Social comparisons may function as a mechanism linking PSMU with negative psychological outcomes. Clinical interventions for individuals with PSMU which reduce the focus on upward social comparisons may also reduce negative psychological outcomes such as depression.

Heterogeneity among Homeless Australian Women and Their Reasons for Homelessness Entry.

Many women become homeless each year, both women who are alone and women with children. Both groups face substantial risks to their physical and mental health, as do the children of homeless mothers. Little is known about the similarities and differences between these two groups in terms of their demographic characteristics, their circumstances on presentation to specialist homelessness services, and the factors that have contributed to their homelessness. The current study analysed data from 163 single mothers with children and 126 lone women who presented to a specialist homelessness service in Australia. It found some similarities between groups, but also considerable heterogeneity. Single mothers were more likely to be younger, to have been born overseas, and to have been homeless in the past 12 months. Lone women were more likely to have medical issues, a mental health condition, addiction issues, admission to a psychiatric ward in the past 12 months, and to not be in the labour force. Implications for service delivery are discussed.

'Material likely to harm or disturb them': testing the alignment between film and game classification decisions and psychological research evidence.

This article analyses the practical operation of Australia's National Classification System (NCS) for films and games, to evaluate its alignment with the findings of psychological research. Twenty-nine decisions of the Classification Review Board are examined to determine the factors applied in assessing the impact of violent content and drawing the line between the different classification categories. The language used in referring to violent content is analysed to determine the concepts that influence the Board's view about the correct classification. These concepts are then tested against the research evidence on the depictions of violence that create the greatest risk of adverse outcomes for viewers and players. Not all of the concepts used in classification have a basis in the research evidence, and some are directly at odds with that evidence. The article concludes by recommending changes to the rules that could lead to better alignment between classification decisions and the research evidence.

Internet Gaming Disorder: Evidence for a Risk and Resilience Approach.

Although previous research has noted a range of factors that predict developing Problematic Video Game Use (PVGU) and Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD), few studies have looked at risk and protective factors together, and there is scant empirical evidence examining whether risk for PVGU or IGD increases or decreases as risk or protective factors accumulate in the individual. The aim of the current study was to examine both issues using predictors from three demonstrated PVGU and IGD risk categories: executive dysfunction, unmet needs in everyday life, and unhelpful family environment. In a survey of N = 866 12-17-year-old school students, the risk/protective factors that most strongly predicted severity of IGD symptomology and meeting IGD diagnostic criteria were self-control and social exclusion. Other significant predictors included impulsivity, self-esteem, mastery, control of one's external environment, and better parent-child attachment quality. Trend analyses revealed a linear increase in the risk of PVGU as risk and net-risk factors accumulated, and a decrease as protective and net-protective factors accumulated. Thus, a net accumulation of issues around impulse control and unmet needs in everyday life may predispose adolescents to PVGU or IGD. Results support a 'risk and resilience' approach to adolescent screen-based disorders and suggest potential benefits to a risk factor focus in treatment.

The Emotional Dysregulation Questionnaire: Development and comparative analysis.

OBJECTIVES: A widely used measure of emotion dysregulation, the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), may insufficiently cover a number of potentially important aspects of emotional dysregulation. A new measure of emotional dysregulation, the Emotional Dysregulation Questionnaire (EDQ) was therefore developed based upon an eight-factor model of the construct. DESIGN AND METHOD: The DERS and the EDQ were administered to a community sample (N = 362; 183 female, 179 male), along with a number of measures of psychopathology associated with emotional dysregulation. The capacity of the EDQ and the DERS to account for the emotional dysregulation associated with these different types of psychopathology was then compared. RESULTS: In several of the psychopathologies examined, the EDQ could account for more variation than the DERS, suggesting that it more comprehensively assessed the emotion regulation deficits associated with these issues. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest the EDQ possesses several advantages relative to the DERS, allowing for a more comprehensive and accurate assessment of emotional dysregulation. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Emotional dysregulation is a common component of many psychological disorders. The Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale is one of the primary self-report measures used to asses these difficulties, however, concerns exist that it may not comprehensively assess the construct of emotional dysregulation. A new self-report measure of comparable length, the Emotional Dysregulation Questionnaire has been developed, with this new measure possessing several advantages relative to the DERS with regard to the assessment of emotional dysregulation. The use of this measure in clinical practice may more accurately identify the emotion regulation deficits present in clients.

Cross-cultural similarities and differences in the theoretical predictors of cyberbullying perpetration: Results from a seven-country study.

The Barlett Gentile cyberbullying model (BGCM) posits that correlated anonymity perceptions and the belief in the irrelevance of muscularity for online bullying (BIMOB) predict positive cyberbullying attitudes to predict subsequent cyberbullying perpetration. Much research has shown the BGCM to be the only published theory that differentiates traditional and cyberbullying while validly predicting cyberbullying. So far, however, the cross-cultural ubiquity has gone understudied. Thus, 1,592 adult participants across seven countries (USA, Australia, Brazil, China, Germany, Japan, and Singapore) completed measures germane to the BGCM. Supporting the BGCM, the variables were significantly correlated for the entire sample, participants from independent cultures, and participants from interdependent cultures. However, the relationship between BIMOB and positive cyberbullying attitudes as well as the relationship between positive cyberbullying attitudes and cyberbullying perpetration were stronger for independent cultures. These results suggest that the BGCM postulates are mostly universal, but several relations appear to be culturally different. Theoretical implications are discussed.

Pathological video game symptoms from adolescence to emerging adulthood: A 6-year longitudinal study of trajectories, predictors, and outcomes.

The aim of this study was to examine trajectories of pathological video game symptoms over a 6-year period from adolescence to emerging adulthood. We also examined a number of predictors and outcomes for different trajectories. Participants included 385 adolescents (M age = 15.01 at the initial time point) who completed multiple questionnaires once a year over a 6-year period. Analyses showed there were 3 distinct trajectories. Approximately 10% of adolescents (called "increasing symptoms") showed moderate levels of pathological gaming symptoms at the initial time point and then increases in symptoms over time. Conversely, 18% of adolescents (called "moderate symptoms") started with moderate symptoms that did not change over time. Finally, 72% of adolescents (called "nonpathological") were relatively low in symptoms across the 6 years of data collection. Being male predicted both the increasing and moderate groups. The increasing group tended to show the worst outcomes over time, with higher levels of depression, aggression, shyness, problematic cell phone use, and anxiety than the nonpathological group, even when controlling for initial levels of many of these variables. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The competitive reaction time task: The development and scientific utility of a flexible laboratory aggression paradigm.

Laboratory measures play an important role in the study of aggression because they allow researchers to make causal inferences. However, these measures have also been criticized. In particular, the competitive reaction time task (CRTT) has been criticized for allowing aggression to be operationalized in multiple ways, leaving it susceptible to "p-hacking." This article describes the development of the CRTT and the ways in which its paradigm flexibility and analytic flexibility allows it to test a wide range of hypotheses and research questions. This flexibility gives the CRTT significant scientific utility, but as with any research paradigm, comes with the obligation that it has to be used with integrity. Although safeguards exist and there is little evidence of misuse, study preregistration can increase confidence in CRTT findings. The importance of findings such as those of Hyatt et al. (in press), which provide further evidence for the validity of the CRTT, are also noted.

Violent video games, externalizing behavior, and prosocial behavior: A five-year longitudinal study during adolescence.

Decades of research on the effects of media violence have examined associations between viewing aggressive material in the media and aggression and prosocial behavior. However, the existing longitudinal studies have tended to exclusively examine aggression and prosocial behavior as outcomes, with a limited range of potential mediators. The current study examines associations between playing violent video games and externalizing and prosocial behavior over a 5-year period across adolescence. Additionally, the study examines potential mediators of these associations, including empathic concern, benevolence, and self-regulation. Participants included 488 adolescents (Mage of child at Wave 1 = 13.83, SD = 0.98) and their parents, who completed self- and parental measures at three different time points, each 2 years apart. Results revealed that early exposure to video game violence was indirectly associated with lower levels of prosocial behavior as mediated by lower levels of benevolence. Additionally, early video game violence play was associated with higher levels of externalizing behavior at the cross-sectional level, but not 5 years later. Implications of results for adolescents and parents are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Screen Violence and Youth Behavior.

Violence in screen entertainment media (ie, television, film, video games, and the Internet), defined as depictions of characters (or players) trying to physically harm other characters (or players), is ubiquitous. The Workgroup on Media Violence and Violent Video Games reviewed numerous meta-analyses and other relevant research from the past 60 years, with an emphasis on violent video game research. Consistent with every major science organization review, the Workgroup found compelling evidence of short-term harmful effects, as well as evidence of long-term harmful effects. The vast majority of laboratory-based experimental studies have revealed that violent media exposure causes increased aggressive thoughts, angry feelings, physiologic arousal, hostile appraisals, aggressive behavior, and desensitization to violence and decreases prosocial behavior (eg, helping others) and empathy. Still, to more fully understand the potential for long-term harm from media violence exposure, the field is greatly in need of additional large-sample, high-quality, longitudinal studies that include validated measures of media violence exposure and measures of other known violence risk factors. Also, although several high-quality media violence intervention studies have been conducted, larger-scale studies with more comprehensive and longer-term assessments are needed to fully understand long-term effects and to inform the development of tools that will help to reduce problems associated with aggression and violence. The evidence that violent screen media constitutes a causal risk factor for increased aggression is compelling. Modern social-cognitive theories of social behavior provide useful frameworks for understanding how and why these effects occur.

Media Violence and Other Aggression Risk Factors in Seven Nations.

Cultural generality versus specificity of media violence effects on aggression was examined in seven countries (Australia, China, Croatia, Germany, Japan, Romania, the United States). Participants reported aggressive behaviors, media use habits, and several other known risk and protective factors for aggression. Across nations, exposure to violent screen media was positively associated with aggression. This effect was partially mediated by aggressive cognitions and empathy. The media violence effect on aggression remained significant even after statistically controlling a number of relevant risk and protective factors (e.g., abusive parenting, peer delinquency), and was similar in magnitude to effects of other risk factors. In support of the cumulative risk model, joint effects of different risk factors on aggressive behavior in each culture were larger than effects of any individual risk factor.

How Important is Temperament? The Relationship Between Coping Styles, Early Maladaptive Schemas and Social Anxiety

Young’s Schema Theory provides a theoretical framework that relates temperament, coping styles and Early Maladaptive Schemas to social anxiety and Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD). The current study explored the relationship between these variables in a sample of 360 non-clinical adults. Results indicated that individuals higher in social anxiety display higher levels of schemas themed around Disconnection and Rejection than individuals low in social anxiety. Temperament appears to influence the type of coping style some individuals adopt with more introverted individuals utilising more avoidant strategies. Nevertheless, neuroticism appears to have a stronger relationship with Disconnection and Rejection schemas than coping strategies linked to either avoiding or overcompensating for stressors. Path analysis was used to test three models of the data based on the relationships proposed by Young and colleagues. Results provide preliminary evidence that the impact of maladaptive schemas on coping strategies is stronger than the influence of coping strategies on such schemas. The implications of the findings for both theory and treatment concerning social anxiety and SAD are discussed, along with suggestions for future research (AU)

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An investigation of the biosocial model of borderline personality disorder.

OBJECTIVES: We sought to test the Biosocial Theory of borderline personality disorder (BPD) that posits that borderline traits are due to emotional dysregulation, caused by the interaction between childhood emotional vulnerability and invaliding parenting. METHOD: A total of 250 adults (76% female, median age = 32.06 years) from a nonclinical population completed self-report measures assessing current levels of borderline traits and emotional dysregulation. They also completed retrospective measures of childhood emotional vulnerability and parental invalidation. RESULTS: Invalidating parenting and emotional vulnerability independently predicted emotion dysregulation, but an interaction effect was not found. Having experienced validating parenting was found to be a protective factor for developing borderline traits but was not significantly related to emotional dysregulation. CONCLUSION: Data in this sample did not support the underlying genesis of BPD proposed by the Biosocial Theory and a model that more parsimoniously explains the development of BPD is proposed.

Long-term relations among prosocial-media use, empathy, and prosocial behavior.

Despite recent growth of research on the effects of prosocial media, processes underlying these effects are not well understood. Two studies explored theoretically relevant mediators and moderators of the effects of prosocial media on helping. Study 1 examined associations among prosocial- and violent-media use, empathy, and helping in samples from seven countries. Prosocial-media use was positively associated with helping. This effect was mediated by empathy and was similar across cultures. Study 2 explored longitudinal relations among prosocial-video-game use, violent-video-game use, empathy, and helping in a large sample of Singaporean children and adolescents measured three times across 2 years. Path analyses showed significant longitudinal effects of prosocial- and violent-video-game use on prosocial behavior through empathy. Latent-growth-curve modeling for the 2-year period revealed that change in video-game use significantly affected change in helping, and that this relationship was mediated by change in empathy.