Do evidence based interventions for chronic fatigue syndrome improve sleep? A systematic review and narrative synthesis.

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and graded exercise therapy (GET) are recommended evidence based treatments for chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), with research supporting their effectiveness in reducing fatigue and functional impairment. However, little research has focussed on the effect of these treatments on sleep, despite high reported sleep disturbance in CFS. Using a narrative synthesis approach, we aimed to 1) systematically identify and summarise the current evidence for the effectiveness of CBT and GET in improving sleep; 2) consider factors influencing treatment effectiveness, including incorporation of sleep management techniques; and 3) consider the appropriateness of sleep outcome measures used within evaluations. Studies evaluating CBT and/or GET for CFS, and including a sleep outcome were eligible for inclusion. Eight studies were identified. We found that GET interventions can improve sleep but this effect is inconsistent across studies. For CBT the evidence is limited with only one of two evaluations demonstrating sleep-related improvements. We conclude from existing research that we know little about the effects of including sleep management components within CBT and GET interventions. We suggest that future research should explore the effectiveness of sleep components within interventions, and sleep specific interventions, using comprehensive outcome measures that fully capture the range of sleep difficulties experienced in CFS.

Distress in significant others of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome: A systematic review of the literature.

PURPOSE: The objective of this study was to systematically review existing empirical research assessing levels and correlates of distress in significant others of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis (CFS/ME). METHODS: Systematic searches in CINAHL, Web of Science and PsycINFO were conducted in August 2014. The search was repeated in January 2015 to check for newly published articles. Studies published in English with quantitative, qualitative, or mixed designs exploring distress, poor subjective health, poor mental health, reduced quality of life and well-being, and symptoms of depression and anxiety in significant others (>18 years) of children and adults with CFS/ME were included. Quality appraisal of included studies was carried out. Quantitative and qualitative studies were summarized separately. RESULTS: Six articles met eligibility criteria. Two quantitative studies with significant others of adult patients, and one quantitative and two mixed-methods studies with significant others of child patients showed moderate to high levels of distress. One qualitative study (adult patients) found minimal evidence of distress and that acceptance of CFS/ME was related to better adjustment. In the quantitative and mixed-methods studies, significant others who attributed some level of responsibility for symptoms to the patient, or who were female, or whose partners had poorer mental health, had higher levels of distress. CONCLUSIONS: The small number of studies to date, the contrary evidence from a qualitative study, and the limited data available on levels of distress in significant others of patients with CFS/ME mean that our conclusion that distress levels are elevated is provisional. We recommend that future qualitative studies focus on this particular topic. Further longitudinal studies exploring correlates of distress within the context of a predictive theoretical model would be helpful. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS/ME) entails considerable economic, social, and personal costs. Uncertainties exist around diagnosis and management. This may lead to particular difficulties for significant others trying to support patients. What does this study add? Few studies have examined distress and its correlates in significant others of people with CFS/ME. Significant others report elevated levels of distress on quantitative measures.

Correction: Therapist Effects and the Impact of Early Therapeutic Alliance on Symptomatic Outcome in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0144623.].

Correction: Therapist Effects and the Impact of Early Therapeutic Alliance on Symptomatic Outcome in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0144623.].

Fatigue in Advanced Cancer Patients: Congruence Between Patients and Their Informal Caregivers About Patients' Fatigue Severity During Cancer Treatment With Palliative Intent and Predictors of Agreement.

CONTEXT: Informal caregivers (ICs) are increasingly involved in the monitoring of symptoms during advanced cancer patients' treatment with palliative intent. A common but subjective symptom during this extended treatment phase is fatigue. OBJECTIVES: This exploratory longitudinal study aimed to determine agreement between patients and ICs about patients' fatigue severity. In addition, predictors of agreement over time were studied. METHODS: A sample of 107 patients with advanced cancer (life expectancy ≥ six months) and their ICs completed the subscale fatigue severity of the Checklist Individual Strength based on the patient's status at baseline and six months later. This eight-item subscale has a validated cutoff to determine the presence of clinically relevant levels of fatigue. ICs' own fatigue severity, strain, self-esteem, and relationship satisfaction were examined as predictors of agreement. RESULTS: A total of 107 dyads completed measures at baseline and 69 dyads six months later. At baseline, ICs' significantly overestimated patients' fatigue severity (P < 0.001) with a moderate amount of bias (Cohen's d = 0.48). In 81 of the 107 dyads (76%), there was congruence about the presence or absence of severe fatigue. On a group level, congruence did not significantly change over time. On a dyad level, there was a tendency to either remain congruent or reach congruence. Next to baseline congruence, ICs' fatigue severity and strain predicted ICs' fatigue ratings (R(2) = 0.22). CONCLUSION: Most ICs accurately predict presence or absence of clinically relevant levels of patients' fatigue. ICs' own fatigue severity and strain should be taken into account as they influence agreement.

Significant other behavioural responses and patient chronic fatigue syndrome symptom fluctuations in the context of daily life: An experience sampling study.

OBJECTIVE: Significant other responses to patients' symptoms are important for patient illness outcomes in chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS/ME); negative responses have been associated with increased patient depression, whilst increased disability and fatigue have been associated with solicitous significant other responses. The current study aimed to examine the relationship between significant other responses and patient outcomes within the context of daily life. DESIGN: Experience Sampling Methodology (ESM). METHOD: Twenty-three patients with CFS/ME and their significant others were recruited from specialist CFS/ME services. Sixty momentary assessments, delivered using individual San Francisco Android Smartphones, were conducted over a period of 6 days. All participants reported on affect, dyadic contact, and significant other responses to the patient. Patients reported on symptom severity, disability, and activity management strategies. RESULTS: Negative significant other responses were associated with increased patient symptom severity and distress reported at the same momentary assessment; there was evidence of a potentially mediating role of concurrent distress on symptom severity. Patient-perceived solicitous responses were associated with reduced patient activity and disability reported at the same momentary assessment. Lagged analyses indicate that momentary associations between significant other responses and patient outcomes are largely transitory; significant other responses were not associated with any of the patient outcomes at the subsequent assessment. CONCLUSION: The results indicate that significant other responses are important influences on the day-to-day experience of CFS/ME. Further research examining patient outcomes in association with specific significant other behavioural responses is warranted and future interventions that target such significant other behaviours may be beneficial. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? The existing literature has identified that significant other responses are important with respect to patient outcomes in CFS/ME. In particular, when examined cross-sectionally and longitudinally, negative and solicitous significant other responses are associated with poorer illness outcomes. This study is the first to examine the momentary associations between negative and solicitous responses, as reported by the patient and significant other, and patient-reported outcomes. An ESM paradigm was used to assess these temporal relationships within the context of participants' daily life. What does this study add? Negative responses were associated with increased momentary patient distress and symptoms. Perceived solicitousness was associated with activity limitation but less perceived disability. The impact of significant other responses on patient outcomes was found to be transitory.

Subjective but Not Actigraphy-Defined Sleep Predicts Next-Day Fatigue in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Prospective Daily Diary Study.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to (1) examine the relationship between subjective and actigraphy-defined sleep, and next-day fatigue in chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS); and (2) investigate the potential mediating role of negative mood on this relationship. We also sought to examine the effect of presleep arousal on perceptions of sleep. METHODS: Twenty-seven adults meeting the Oxford criteria for CFS and self-identifying as experiencing sleep difficulties were recruited to take part in a prospective daily diary study, enabling symptom capture in real time over a 6-day period. A paper diary was used to record nightly subjective sleep and presleep arousal. Mood and fatigue symptoms were rated four times each day. Actigraphy was employed to provide objective estimations of sleep duration and continuity. RESULTS: Multilevel modelling revealed that subjective sleep variables, namely sleep quality, efficiency, and perceiving sleep to be unrefreshing, predicted following-day fatigue levels, with poorer subjective sleep related to increased fatigue. Lower subjective sleep efficiency and perceiving sleep as unrefreshing predicted reduced variance in fatigue across the following day. Negative mood on waking partially mediated these relationships. Increased presleep cognitive and somatic arousal predicted self-reported poor sleep. Actigraphy-defined sleep, however, was not found to predict following-day fatigue. CONCLUSIONS: For the first time we show that nightly subjective sleep predicts next-day fatigue in CFS and identify important factors driving this relationship. Our data suggest that sleep specific interventions, targeting presleep arousal, perceptions of sleep and negative mood on waking, may improve fatigue in CFS.

Therapist Effects and the Impact of Early Therapeutic Alliance on Symptomatic Outcome in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome.

UNLABELLED: Few studies have examined therapist effects and therapeutic alliance (TA) in treatments for chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). Therapist effects are the differences in outcomes achieved by different therapists. TA is the quality of the bond and level of agreement regarding the goals and tasks of therapy. Prior research suffers the methodological problem that the allocation of therapist was not randomized, meaning therapist effects may be confounded with selection effects. We used data from a randomized controlled treatment trial of 296 people with CFS. The trial compared pragmatic rehabilitation (PR), a nurse led, home based self-help treatment, a counselling-based treatment called supportive listening (SL), with general practitioner treatment as usual. Therapist allocation was randomized. Primary outcome measures, fatigue and physical functioning were assessed blind to treatment allocation. TA was measured in the PR and SL arms. Regression models allowing for interactions were used to examine relationships between (i) therapist and therapeutic alliance, and (ii) therapist and average treatment effect (the difference in mean outcomes between different treatment conditions). We found no therapist effects. We found no relationship between TA and the average treatment effect of a therapist. One therapist formed stronger alliances when delivering PR compared to when delivering SL (effect size 0.76, SE 0.33, 95% CI 0.11 to 1.41). In these therapies for CFS, TA does not influence symptomatic outcome. The lack of significant therapist effects on outcome may result from the trial's rigorous quality control, or random therapist allocation, eliminating selection effects. Further research is needed. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN74156610.

Barriers to successful implementation of care in home haemodialysis (BASIC-HHD):1. Study design, methods and rationale.

BACKGROUND: Ten years on from the National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence' technology appraisal guideline on haemodialysis in 2002; the clinical community is yet to rise to the challenge of providing home haemodialysis (HHD) to 10-15% of the dialysis cohort. The renal registry report, suggests underutilization of a treatment type that has had a lot of research interest and several publications worldwide on its apparent benefit for both physical and mental health of patients. An understanding of the drivers to introducing and sustaining the modality, from organizational, economic, clinical and patient perspectives is fundamental to realizing the full benefits of the therapy with the potential to provide evidence base for effective care models. Through the BASIC-HHD study, we seek to understand the clinical, patient and carer related psychosocial, economic and organisational determinants of successful uptake and maintenance of home haemodialysis and thereby, engage all major stakeholders in the process. DESIGN AND METHODS: We have adopted an integrated mixed methodology (convergent, parallel design) for this study. The study arms include a. patient; b. organization; c. carer and d. economic evaluation. The three patient study cohorts (n = 500) include pre-dialysis patients (200), hospital haemodialysis (200) and home haemodialysis patients (100) from geographically distinct NHS sites, across the country and with variable prevalence of home haemodialysis. The pre-dialysis patients will also be prospectively followed up for a period of 12 months from study entry to understand their journey to renal replacement therapy and subsequently, before and after studies will be carried out for a select few who do commence dialysis in the study period. The process will entail quantitative methods and ethnographic interviews of all groups in the study. Data collection will involve clinical and biomarkers, psychosocial quantitative assessments and neuropsychometric tests in patients. Organizational attitudes and dialysis unit practices will be studied together with perceptions of healthcare providers on provision of home HD. Economic evaluation of home and hospital haemodialysis practices will also be undertaken and we will apply scenario ("what … if") analysis using system dynamics modeling to investigate the impact of different policy choices and financial models on dialysis technology adoption, care pathways and costs. Less attention is often given to the patient's carers who provide informal support, often of a complex nature to patients afflicted by chronic ailments such as end stage kidney disease. Engaging the carers is fundamental to realizing the full benefits of a complex, home-based intervention and a qualitative study of the carers will be undertaken to elicit their fears, concerns and perception of home HD before and after patient's commencement of the treatment. The data sets will be analysed independently and the findings will be mixed at the stage of interpretation to form a coherent message that will be informing practice in the future. DISCUSSION: The BASIC-HHD study is designed to assemble pivotal information on dialysis modality choice and uptake, investigating users, care-givers and care delivery processes and study their variation in a multi-layered analytical approach within a single health care system. The study results would define modality specific service and patient pathway redesign. STUDY REGISTRATION: This study has been reviewed and approved by the Greater Manchester West Health Research Authority National Research Ethics Service (NRES) The study is on the NIHR (CLRN) portfolio.

Mediators of the effects on fatigue of pragmatic rehabilitation for chronic fatigue syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: To examine potential mediators of the effect of pragmatic rehabilitation on improvements in fatigue following a randomized controlled trial for patients with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS/ME) in primary care (IRCTN 74156610). METHOD: Patients fulfilled the Oxford criteria for CFS. Ninety-five patients were randomized to pragmatic rehabilitation and 100 to general practitioner (GP) treatment as usual. The outcome was the Chalder fatigue scale score (0123 scoring) at end of treatment (20 weeks) and 1-year follow up (70 weeks). First, the effect of treatment on potential mediators was assessed. Then fatigue was regressed on significant mediators, treatment allocation, and baseline measures of fatigue and significant mediators. RESULTS: Reduction in limiting activities at 20 weeks mediated the positive effect of pragmatic rehabilitation on fatigue at 70 weeks (mediated effect size = -2.64, SE = 0.81, p = .001, proportion of effect mediated = 82.0%). Reduction in catastrophizing at 20 weeks mediated the positive effect of pragmatic rehabilitation on fatigue at 70 weeks (mediated effect size = -1.39, SE = 0.61, p = .023, proportion of effect mediated = 43.2%). Reductions in 70-week measures of fear avoidance, embarrassment avoidance, limiting activities, and all-or-nothing behavior all mediated improvement in fatigue at 70 weeks, although the causal direction of these cross-sectional effects cannot be determined. There were no between-group differences on measures of exercise capacity (a timed step test). CONCLUSIONS: Improvements in fatigue following pragmatic rehabilitation are related to changes in behavioral responses to and beliefs about fatigue.

The effect of gym training on multiple outcomes in Parkinson's disease: a pilot randomised waiting-list controlled trial.

There is accumulating evidence for the benefits of exercise in Parkinson's disease (PD), but less is known about group exercise interventions. We evaluated the effect of gym-training programme on people with PD. Thirty-two adults with mild to moderate PD, not currently exercising formally, were randomised to an immediate 20-week biweekly gym training programme at a local leisure complex, or a 10-week programme starting 10 weeks later. Assessments at baseline (T1), 10 weeks (T2) and 20 weeks (T3) included reaction time, motor performance (UPDRS), quality of life and illness perceptions. Experiences of the programme were assessed via questionnaire and a focus group. Overall UPDRS motor function score did not change over time. However, gym training was associated with significant improvements in reaction times and some timed tests in the immediate training group (T1-T2). The delayed group showed similar improvements following gym training (T2-T3). Participants reported enjoyment, obtaining social benefits, and increased confidence. However, the questionnaire measures did not show improvements in subjective health ratings or illness perceptions. Although benefits were not apparent in the questionnaire measures or overall UPDRS scores, our findings suggest that a 10-week gym training programme in a community setting can provide some benefits for people with PD.

Cost-effectiveness of supported self-management for CFS/ME patients in primary care.

BACKGROUND: Nurse led self-help treatments for people with chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalitis (CFS/ME) have been shown to be effective in reducing fatigue but their cost-effectiveness is unknown. METHODS: Cost-effectiveness analysis conducted alongside a single blind randomised controlled trial comparing pragmatic rehabilitation (PR) and supportive listening (SL) delivered by primary care nurses, and treatment as usual (TAU) delivered by the general practitioner (GP) in North West England. A within trial analysis was conducted comparing the costs and quality adjusted life years (QALYs) measured within the time frame of the trial. 296 patients aged 18 and over with CFS/ME diagnosed using the Oxford criteria were included in the cost-effectiveness analysis. RESULTS: Treatment as usual is less expensive and leads to better patient outcomes compared with Supportive Listening. Treatment as usual is also less expensive than Pragmatic Rehabilitation. PR was effective at reducing fatigue in the short term, but the impact of the intervention on QALYs was uncertain. However, based on the results of this trial, PR is unlikely to be cost-effective in this patient population. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis does not support the introduction of SL. Any benefits generated by PR are unlikely to be of sufficient magnitude to warrant recommending PR for this patient group on cost-effectiveness grounds alone. However, dissatisfaction with current treatment options means simply continuing with 'treatment as usual' in primary care is unlikely to be acceptable to patients and practitioners. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial registration number is IRCTN74156610.

Attributions, distress and behavioural responses in the significant others of people with chronic fatigue syndrome.

To test an attribution-emotion model of reactions to chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis, 30 significant others of 30 adult patients with chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis were administered a semi-structured interview about their beliefs regarding the patient's illness and completed questionnaire measures of distress and behavioural responses to the patient. Spontaneous causal explanations (attributions) for illness events, symptom exacerbation and negative patient mood were extracted and coded. Significant others' distress and negative behavioural responses towards the chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis patient were associated with attributing illness events to causes personal and internal to the patient. Our findings may inform the future family-based interventions for chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis.

Do illness perceptions and mood predict healing time for burn wounds? a prospective, preliminary study.

UNLABELLED: Some burn wounds take longer to heal than others, but this cannot be fully explained by physical factors such as burn size and depth. Research interest has therefore focussed on the potential contribution of psychological factors, such as perception of the burn and distress, to the wound healing process. OBJECTIVES: Using the framework of Leventhal's Common-Sense Model, we investigated whether patients' perceptions of their burn wounds and distress contributed to healing time, and whether this was via the mediating role of adherence to treatment recommendations. METHOD: Seventy-two adult burn-injured outpatients completed questionnaire measures of burn perceptions (Brief Illness Perception Questionnaire), distress (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale), trauma symptoms (Impact of Event Scale-Revised) and appearance concerns (Derriford Appearance Scale-24). Burn characteristics, healing time and adherence data were taken from clinic notes. RESULTS: Distress, trauma symptoms and appearance concerns were positively correlated with negative burn perceptions. In regression analysis, burn perceptions added significantly to the prediction of burn healing time after age, medical factors and burn characteristics had been controlled for. Adherence measures were not significantly correlated with burns perceptions. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that patients' perceptions of their burns contribute to healing time. Further research on the mechanisms of this association is warranted.

Socialization to the model: the active component in the therapeutic alliance? A preliminary study.

BACKGROUND: Therapeutic alliance has been found to be a significant predictor of outcome in psychotherapy yet what constitutes therapeutic alliance remains unclear. Examining the common constructs of therapeutic alliance, it is possible that there may be a conceptual overlap between active components of therapeutic alliance and socialization to the treatment model. AIM: To investigate the relationship between socialization to the model and therapeutic alliance. METHOD: Participants (N = 43) were taken from the active treatment arm in a RCT for the treatment of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS/ME). Therapeutic alliance was measured using a 5-item questionnaire (brief CALPAS) and socialization to the model was extracted from therapy tapes using a novel coding system. RESULTS: Key findings were that when patients and therapists agreed about goals of treatment, there were higher levels of concordance, less evidence of applying principles incongruent to the model, and less resistance during the treatment sessions. CONCLUSIONS: The outcome of this preliminary study contributes to the potential understanding of active components in the therapeutic alliance, and supports further research to achieve a more detailed picture of "non-specific" factors in therapy, including the active process of socialization in therapeutic alliance.

Nurse led, home based self help treatment for patients in primary care with chronic fatigue syndrome: randomised controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effectiveness of home delivered pragmatic rehabilitation-a programme of gradually increasing activity designed collaboratively by the patient and the therapist-and supportive listening-an approach based on non-directive counselling-for patients in primary care with chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis or encephalitis (CFS/ME). DESIGN: Single blind, randomised, controlled trial. SETTING: 186 general practices across the north west of England between February 2005 and May 2007. PARTICIPANTS: 296 patients aged 18 or over with CFS/ME (median illness duration seven years) diagnosed using the Oxford criteria. INTERVENTIONS: Participants were randomly allocated to pragmatic rehabilitation, supportive listening, or general practitioner treatment as usual. Both therapies were delivered at home in 10 sessions over 18 weeks by one of three adult specialty general nurses who had received four months' training, including supervised practice, in each of the interventions. GP treatment as usual was unconstrained except that patients were not to be referred for systematic psychological therapies during the treatment period. Main outcome measures The primary clinical outcomes were fatigue and physical functioning at the end of treatment (20 weeks) and 70 weeks from recruitment compared with GP treatment as usual. Lower fatigue scores and higher physical functioning scores denote better outcomes. RESULTS: A total of 257 (87%) of the 296 patients who entered the trial were assessed at 70 weeks, the primary outcome point. Analysis was on an intention to treat basis, with robust treatment effects estimated after adjustment for missing data using probability weights. Immediately after treatment (at 20 weeks), patients allocated to pragmatic rehabilitation (n=95) had significantly improved fatigue (effect estimate -1.18, 95% confidence interval -2.18 to -0.18; P=0.021) but not physical functioning (-0.18, 95% CI -5.88 to +5.52; P=0.950) compared with patients allocated to treatment as usual (n=100). At one year after finishing treatment (70 weeks), there were no statistically significant differences in fatigue or physical functioning between patients allocated to pragmatic rehabilitation and those on treatment as usual (-1.00, 95% CI -2.10 to +0.11; P=0.076 and +2.57, 95% CI 3.90 to +9.03; P=0.435). At 20 weeks, patients allocated to supportive listening (n=101) had poorer physical functioning than those allocated to treatment as usual (-7.54, 95% CI -12.76 to -2.33; P=0.005) and no difference in fatigue. At 70 weeks, patients allocated to supportive listening did not differ significantly from those allocated to treatment as usual on either primary outcome. CONCLUSIONS: For patients with CFS/ME in primary care, pragmatic rehabilitation delivered by trained nurse therapists improves fatigue in the short term compared with unconstrained GP treatment as usual, but the effect is small and not statistically significant at one year follow-up. Supportive listening delivered by trained nurse therapists is not an effective treatment for CFS/ME. Trial registration International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number IRCTN74156610.

Managing chronic fatigue syndrome in U.K. primary care: challenges and opportunities.

Calls for the treatment of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) in primary care have been based largely on considerations of the availability and accessibility of resources rather than with reference to a firm evidence base. Treatments such as cognitive-behavioural therapy and graded exercise therapy, which have proven effective for CFS in secondary and specialist care settings, have not been adequately tested in primary care. There are several factors that may affect the generalizability of such treatments. Patients seen in primary care may differ from those seen in secondary care, in terms of both illness beliefs and social characteristics, and these factors need to be taken into account when developing and adapting treatments for primary care. While some primary care physicians experience difficulties in the diagnosis of CFS, we argue that early and authoritative diagnosis and the provision of a tangible explanation for patients' symptoms are likely to be beneficial. Because of the scarcity of qualified specialist therapists, we need to train primary care practitioners to deliver treatments, and we need more research into the feasibility and effectiveness of doing this. Finally, the primary care setting offers opportunities for the guided development of patient self-help approaches.

Idiosyncratic personal explanations for blood glucose events are associated with poorer self-management and glycemic control in adult patients with long-standing type 1 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To examine whether spontaneous causal attributions for blood glucose events were associated with blood glucose control (HbA(1c) [A1C]), self-management, and adjustment to diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 62 adults (31 female) with type 1 diabetes, recruited from a diabetes specialist clinic, with a mean age of 42.3 years and a mean illness duration of 19.6 years, were interviewed about the onset, history, course, and management of their diabetes. Spontaneous causal attributions for fluctuations in blood glucose level were extracted from the interviews and coded in accordance with the Leeds Attributional Coding System. Participants completed questionnaire measures of anxiety, depression, and appraisal of diabetes. Glycemic control (A1C) at the time of interview and 1 year later was extracted from notes. RESULTS: Participants who made proportionally more personal, or idiosyncratic, explanations for blood glucose fluctuations or events (such as hypoglycemic episodes) had higher A1C levels at time 1 and 1 year later and were judged to manage their diabetes less well. Furthermore, the association between personal attributions and A1C was partly accounted for by self-management behavior. Participants who made personal and stable attributions appraised their diabetes more negatively. CONCLUSIONS: Clinicians should be sensitive to patients' causal explanations for blood glucose events. Helping patients consider alternative explanations may produce benefits in terms of better management and control of diabetes.

Attributions for negative events in the partners of adults with type I diabetes: Associations with partners' expressed emotion and marital adjustment.

OBJECTIVES: An attribution-emotion model of reactions to illness was tested in a sample of partners of 60 adult patients with type I diabetes. METHODS: Partners were interviewed using the Camberwell family interview (CFI), from which spontaneous attributions for negative events were extracted and coded. Events were classified into diabetes and non-diabetes events. Partners also completed questionnaire measures of marital adjustment, anxiety and depression. RESULTS: Compared with low expressed emotion (EE) partners, high-EE partners attributed proportionally more negative diabetes events (e.g. patient characteristics and behaviour) to factors controllable by and personal to the patient. High-EE partners were more anxious than low-EE partners, and made more responsibility attributions (attributions rated as both internal and controllable and personal). Partners with poorer marital adjustment made more responsibility attributions, but only for non-diabetes events. CONCLUSION: Whereas attributions for both diabetes and non-diabetes events were related to partners' EE, attributions for diabetes events were not significantly associated with partners' marital adjustment.