Health and Social Determinants Associated With Delay of Care Among Community-Dwelling Rural Older Adults.

BACKGROUND: Delaying health care has the capacity to increase morbidity and premature mortality among individuals with chronic and acute health conditions, particularly for those living in rural areas. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to identify social determinants of health that are associated with delay of care (DOC) among older adults residing in rural areas across the inland northwest. METHOD: We conducted descriptive, bivariate, and regression analyses using data from a needs assessment designed to identify health needs and service delivery gaps among an economically diverse 8-county region. RESULT: Most respondents (aged 60+ years) were white, female, with health insurance coverage (n = 1226, mean = 71). Overall, 35% experienced DOC. We used logistic regression to determine the influence of age, sex, health conditions, distance from medical facility, income, and perceived quality of neighborhood on DOC. Individuals with younger age ( P = .017), more chronic conditions ( P < .001), lower income ( P < .001), and lower perceived quality of neighborhood ( P = .008) were more likely to experience DOC. CONCLUSION: These findings highlight risk factors associated with DOC, which can inform prevention efforts championed by community-based organizations, health care providers, and policy makers. Future research is needed to investigate compounding long-term effects of DOC, especially among individuals living in rural areas.

Introduction to the Special Issue: Toward a Lifespan Prevention Science - A Focus on Middle and Late Adulthood.

The interdisciplinary field of prevention science was founded on the premise of a lifespan developmental model. Prevention scientists have developed a strong set of tools and intervention technologies for understanding and potentially modifying risk and protective factors through early adulthood. However, there is a demographic imperative to apply prevention science principles to health issues in middle and late adulthood. The articles in this special issue utilize a variety of methods to investigate important scientific questions about how theories, methodologies, and interventions applied in the science of prevention can be usefully integrated into the study of health and wellness in middle and late adulthood. More specifically, contributions (1) highlight current empirical research that draws on lifespan developmental science to address the unique prevention and intervention needs in middle and late adulthood, (2) illustrate the opportunities and challenges of a lifespan approach to prevention science with special attention to middle and late adulthood, and (3) identify additional areas that prevention science can contribute to advancements in middle and late adulthood. These articles provide a glimpse into the challenges and opportunities at the intersection of prevention science and gerontology. As a field, we have much room to grow in leveraging innovative tools, approaches, and efforts to best support older adults' physical, mental, and social health, particularly for diverse and under-served populations.

Perceived Changes in Social Connectedness Across the Life Course: A Mixed Method Approach.

Social connection is important across the life course, but overall levels have been declining. The COVID-19 pandemic presented a unique context to examine social connectedness and adaptive capacity in times of social adversity. We used a parallel mixed method design to collect online survey data from a representative U.S. sample (N = 359). Applying an exploratory sequential approach, we used a general linear model multivariate approach to repeated measures to test for differences in participants' perceptions of social connectedness by time and age category and qualitative analysis to gain insights about disrupted social contexts. Results indicated that social connectedness decreased after mitigation restrictions for all age groups, but individuals in emerging and late adulthood felt the greatest impact. Two themes emerged: differing emotional responses to altered communication and intentionality of maintaining and/or creating social connections. Experiences of social connectedness need to be understood as a function of life stage and developmental timing.

The effectiveness of a brief intervention to increase the likelihood of advance care planning among college students.

Advance care planning (ACP) is atypical in the United States, especially among young adults. We designed and evaluated the effectiveness of a brief intervention about the benefits of perceived control and planning for end-of-life. Participants (N = 188) were randomized into three conditions and completed a cross-sectional questionnaire. Participants who received the intervention were less likely to worry about not getting enough care and more likely to anticipate completing verbal and written ACP within three months than were comparison group participants. Findings suggest the potential of brief interventions to raise awareness about the benefits of ACP and enhance completion among young adults.

Program Practices Predict Intergenerational Interaction Among Children and Adults.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Intergenerational programs, those engaging youth and adults of nonadjacent generations in shared programming for mutual benefit, are attracting increasing attention from funders, policymakers, and practitioners for the range of goals they can support. The mechanisms by which these goals are achieved are rarely studied. To address this gap, we analyzed the associations between specific intergenerational implementation practices and younger and older participant outcomes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Activity leaders at 5 sites serving adults and preschoolers received training to implement 14 evidence-based practices during intergenerational activities involving 84 adults (M = 75.25 years; range = 55-98) and 105 preschool participants (M = 3.26 years; range = 2-5) over 4 years. Measures of activity leaders' implementation of these practices and participants' behavioral responses to programming were gathered. We utilized multilevel modeling to test whether variations in implementation of practices were associated with variations in participants' responses to programming on a session-by-session basis. RESULTS: For both preschool and adult participants, analyses revealed that the implementation of certain practices was associated with significantly more intergenerational interaction. When more practices were implemented reflecting factors of (a) participant pairing and (b) person-centered care, both child and adult intergenerational interactions were higher. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Practices used by intergenerational activity leaders during programming help to explain within-person responses of both child and adult participants. Intergenerational relationships may be a powerful means to achieve diverse goals; they depend on skillful practice by trained activity leaders.

Young adults' experiences with loss and grief during COVID-19.

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, people are experiencing unprecedented cumulative loss and grief. Guided by life course theory, we used inductive qualitative analysis and explored young adults' (N = 86) written accounts of their earliest and most significant losses associated with COVID-19, as well as their coping mechanisms. Overall, participants experienced substantial loss, especially losses related to their education and social life/events. We discuss five subthemes related to approaches to coping and five subthemes related to barriers to coping. Our findings are relevant to informing strategies that support adapting to significant loss in early adulthood, beyond the pandemic.

A lifespan perspective of structural and perceived social relationships, food insecurity, and dietary behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Physical distancing and economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic may influence dietary behaviors. Using a parallel mixed method design, we examined the relationships between structural and perceived social relationships on dietary behaviors across the adult lifespan and by food security status. A representative sample of 360 adults (18-78 years old) living in the United States were recruited through Prolific Academic to complete an online cross-sectional survey. Participants provided data about demographics, food insecurity, structural and perceived social relationships, diet quality, and unhealthy snacking at the onset of the pandemic. Participants responded to open-ended questions about perceived changes in social connections and dietary behavior since COVID-19. Quantitative findings indicated food insecure emerging and older adults were at highest risk for low diet quality and frequent unhealthy snacking. Friend support was associated with higher diet quality. Qualitative findings suggested overall decreases in social connection and changes in dietary behavior, with food insecure adults describing decreases in diet quality. Participants who reported increases in emotional eating also reported decreases in social connection. Findings suggest the pandemic may exacerbate inequalities, particularly among food insecure emerging and older adults. Scaling up preventive interventions to increase social connection and reduce food insecurity during unprecedented challenges may promote healthier dietary behaviors now and in the long-term.

Changes in Social, Economic, and Health Risk Factors Across the Lifespan during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Latent Transition Analysis.

The COVID-19 pandemic led to unique, pervasive, and changing global impacts. It is imperative to characterize groups of individuals based on modifiable factors, and to describe how groups have been impacted by the continuing pandemic in the United States to promote health and well-being and to inform preventive interventions. We used latent transition analysis to identify subgroups of modifiable psychosocial, economic, and health risk factors; to explore subgroup shifts across time; and to assess the prevalence of non-modifiable factors associated with subgroup membership. We recruited 450 participants 18 years and older living in the United States to complete a longitudinal survey exploring health during the pandemic. Participants completed three waves of data collection from April to November 2020. We used latent transition analysis to identify statuses, shifts in prevalence over three waves, and the relationships of non-modifiable covariates with each status. Five statuses were identified: high risk together, low risk together, high risk alone, low risk alone, and financial risk together. Statuses were relatively stable over time; the majority (60%-66%) of participants were in statuses categorized by multiple indicators of high modifiable risk, and the largest transitions were to lower risk subgroups. Increasing age, being male, and living in an urban area were the only non-modifiable covariates associated with status membership. It is imperative to continue to scale up targeted interventions aimed at promoting resilience, well-being, financial well-being, delays in healthcare use, food insecurity, and depression among individuals in higher-risk subgroups to promote health and well-being.

Health Behaviors at the Onset of the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Objectives: We examined perceived behavior change since implementation of physical distancing restrictions and identified modifiable (self-rated health, resilience, depressive symptoms, social support and subjective wellbeing) and non-modifiable (demographics) risk/protective factors. Methods: A representative US sample (N = 362) completed an online survey about potential risk/protective factors and health behaviors prior to the pandemic and after implemented/recommended restrictions. We assessed change in perceived health behaviors prior to and following introduction of COVID-19. We conducted hierarchical linear regression to explore and identify risk/protective factors related to physical activity, diet quality, and social isolation. Results: There have been substantial decreases in physical activity and increases in sedentary behavior and social isolation, but no changes in diet quality since COVID-19. We identified modifiable and non-modifiable factors associated with each health behavior. Conclusions: Negative effects indicate the need for universal intervention to promote health behaviors. Inequalities in health behaviors among vulnerable populations may be exacerbated since COVID-19, suggesting need for targeted invention. Social support may be a mechanism to promote health behaviors. We suggest scaling out effective health behavior interventions with the same intensity in which physical distancing recommendations were implemented.

Experiential education through project-based learning: Sex and aging.

Myths and stereotypes of sex in late-life prevail. Unless the workforce is prepared to address the sexual health needs of older adults, it is difficult to disrupt ageism in professional settings. We evaluated a two-day project-based workshop designed for undergraduate students about sex and aging. Using content analysis, we examined open-ended responses from 41 undergraduate students. Three themes depicted the value of experiential project-based learning. Participants (1) appreciated the opportunity to develop transferable pre-professional skills, (2) demonstrated comfort and utilized creative strategies to discuss a sensitive topic, and (3) attained a greater awareness of late-life sexual health and behavior. Providing training to undergraduate students helped close the knowledge gap about issues of late-life sexual health and behaviors. Participants developed skills for translating knowledge into practical resources. It is critical for gerontology educators to identify strategies to deliver sex and aging education to enhance services for older adults.

Experiences With Involuntary Nursing Home Relocation: The Staff Perspective.

Although involuntary nursing home closures for operational and care-related reasons occur infrequently, few studies have examined the centrality of the actions of staff to facilitate residents' relocation adjustment. We interviewed 18 administrators and 43 staff working at 27 facilities about the relocation process for residents from two facilities that lost their Medicare and State Medicaid certification due to ongoing care deficiencies. Thematic analysis revealed three major themes throughout each aspect of the relocation process: (a) staff expectations were not met, (b) barriers/challenges were persistent, and (c) resident/family involvement was minimal. We offer proactive participant-derived recommendations for policy and practice to strengthen involuntary relocation processes to ensure a cooperative work environment and residents' well-being, regardless of the cause for involuntary closure.

Location Matters: Disparities in the Likelihood of Receiving Services in Late Life.

Moving beyond typical dichotomous rural-urban categorizations, this study examines older adults' likelihood of receiving home- and community-based services. Data from 1608 individuals aged 60+ who requested assistance from Area Agencies on Aging in Virginia in 2014-2015 were analyzed; 88% of individuals received at least one service. Receiving services was associated with geographic-based factors. Individuals living in completely rural areas were significantly less likely to receive any service compared to individuals in mostly rural (OR = 2.46, p = .003) and mostly urban (OR = 1.97, p = .024) areas. There were subtle but significant geographic-based differences in the likelihood of receiving specific services including food/meal, fresh food, information and referral, in-home care, utilities support, and transportation. Findings provide nuanced insights about geographic-based disparities in the receipt of services and suggest the need for new and modified service delivery strategies that maximize older adults' ability to live.

Identification of Functional, Social, and Health Needs of Older Residents in Nonurban Settings: A Community Risk Assessment.

Objectives: We examined functional, social, and health needs and service delivery gaps among a geographically expansive and economically diverse population of older adults to identify service priorities. Methods: We conducted analyses based on 1280 respondents aged 60 years and older surveyed for an 8-county needs assessment. Results: We identified three distinct risk profiles using two-step cluster analysis. ANOVA and chi-square analyses revealed significant differences between risk profiles on a range of health and social service needs. Discussion: Identifying high-risk residents can support community providers' efforts to help older adults age in place. Community-based organizations are well-positioned to respond early to social determinants of health needs. Targeting services and supports that reduce risk, extend independence, and prevent avoidable adverse healthcare situations to improve health and achieve health equity among historically underserved and hard-to-reach populations and prioritizing low-cost community interventions can reduce the need for high-cost interventions (e.g., emergency care and hospitalizations).

A Scoping Review: Characteristics and Outcomes of Residents Who Experience Involuntary Relocation.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Relocation to a residential care facility has been described as the most significant relocation affecting older adults, yet subsequent relocations, like in the case of a facility closure, have received minimal attention in the scholarly research literature. This paper reviews the published literature on involuntary relocation, focusing on the experiences of residents, families, and staff and the effects of involuntary relocation on nursing home residents' health. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We conducted a scoping review to identify peer-reviewed studies reporting on involuntary relocation of nursing home residents. A total of 28 quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method articles met inclusion criteria. RESULTS: Researchers mostly relied on longitudinal designs and quantitative indicators of functional health, cognitive status, psychological and emotional well-being, environment, and relocation context to examine residents' mortality risk and health outcomes associated with involuntary relocation. Inclusion of qualitative and mixed-method approaches was infrequent, as were indicators of social engagement and perceptions of relocation. Residents' awareness of and preparation for involuntary relocation positively influenced their health and well-being. Family involvement was frequently hindered by communication challenges with facilities. Staff expressed concern about residents, experienced increased workload demands, and acknowledged challenges with planning and communication. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Based on the collective findings, we propose a conceptual model of critical factors at play during relocation for consideration for guiding future research and developing provisions to current policies guiding relocation processes. Facilities and policymakers need to consider procedures that enhance planning efforts and decision-making among this vulnerable population and their families.

Using Contact Theory to Assess Staff Perspectives on Training Initiatives of an Intergenerational Programming Intervention.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Project TRIP (Transforming Relationships through Intergenerational Programs) was developed as a sustainable intergenerational community project involving child care participants and elders attending an elder care program or volunteering at the children's program. The project focused on staff development of evidence-based intergenerational practices. To enhance available intervention research, contact theory provided a theoretical framework to explore how staff members' and administrators' perceptions of the intervention influenced their ability to implement programming in social care settings. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We used a directed content analysis approach to analyze small group and individual interviews with 32 participants from 6 program sites over 5 years. RESULTS: Participants highlighted inherent challenges and subsequent benefits of academic-community partnerships. Greater on-site presence, open communication, and relationship-building proved critical to improve community partnerships, project fidelity, and program sustainability. When interactions reflected contact theory tenets, collaborators reported positive attitudes toward and interactions with research partners. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Contact theory provided a useful framework to understand the researcher-practitioner partnership. Researchers should plan for partnerships that: (a) are supported by authority figures, including staff and participants, (b) utilize a shared expertise approach where partners have equal group status, (c) involve close cooperation; (d) align research and program goals, and (e) foster positive communication through frequent contact using practitioners' preferred methods and including in-person contact. We recommend future intergenerational programming interventions build on a foundation of both theory and practice.

Effects of Long-term Services and Supports on Survival of Poor, Highly Vulnerable Older Adults.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: We explore how an understudied population of older individuals addresses their ongoing care needs when ineligible for Medicaid waiver services. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Using regression techniques, we identified factors associated with service use and health outcomes among 1,008 older adults (60+) who applied for Medicaid waiver assistance. Exploratory follow-up interviews with eight waiver-ineligible rural-dwelling individuals identified strategies used for managing their care needs. RESULTS: Mortality was high among study participants. Specifically, being waiver-ineligible increased the risk of mortality. Waiver-ineligible individuals were more likely to access alternative services and supports. Rural-dwelling older adults were less likely to be waiver-eligible, but twice as likely to access alternative services and supports, compared to nonrural older adults. Participants interviewed had ongoing unmet needs, relied on family and community services, and used internal and external strategies to manage care needs. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Having unmet needs increased the risk of mortality, whereas receiving full waiver services extended the lives of recipients. More generous services extend the lives of older, highly vulnerable, community-residing older people. Less generous services also extended life, but not to the same extent. Individuals without formal assistance relied on various strategies to confront ongoing daily challenges. Assisting a broader range of older adults with unmet needs is essential in addressing care needs and maintaining functional capacity to remain at home.

Measuring dimensions of intergenerational contact: factor analysis of the Queen's University Scale.

OBJECTIVES: Intergenerational contact has been linked to a range of health outcomes, including greater engagement and lower depression. Measures of contact are limited. Informed by Allport's contact theory, the Queen's University Scale consists of items rating contact with elders. We administered the survey to a young adult sample (N = 606) to identify factors that may optimize intervention programming and enhance young persons' health as they age. METHODS: We conducted exploratory factor analysis (EFA) in the structural equation modeling framework and then confirmatory factor analysis with items pertaining to the general elder population. RESULTS: EFAs did not yield an adequate factor structure. We tested two alternative confirmatory models based on findings from the EFA. Neither a second-order model nor a first-order model allowing double loadings and correlated errors proved adequate. CONCLUSION: Difficulty finding an adequate factor solution reflects challenges to measuring intergenerational contact with this scale. Items reflect relevant topics but subscale models are limited in interpretability. Knox and colleagues' analyses led them to recommend a brief, global scale, but we did not find empirical support for such a measure. Next steps include development and testing of a reliable, valid scale measuring dimensions of contact as perceived by both youth and elders.

Older Adults in Rural Appalachia: Preference and Expectations for Future Care.

Little is known about how rural-dwelling older adults anticipate and plan for future care needs. Using a mixed-method explanatory design, structural equation modeling ( n = 535) revealed significant associations between concerns about using services on preference for type of help; preference was associated with likelihood of using future services. Content analysis of interview data from 19 older adults who needed but were not receiving help revealed how they conceptualize their need for assistance and anticipated future care arrangements. Nine older adults were not thinking about future care needs. While most older adults articulated preferences for informal help, they indicated some openness to formal assistance. Preferences did not always align with expectations for the future. Rather, concerns about burdening family and friends outweighed concerns about community services and influenced expectations of using formal services. Understanding rural older adults' expectations for future care arrangements is necessary for advancing policy and implementing successful services options.

Home and Community-Based Service Use by Vulnerable Older Adults.

Purpose of the Study: The purpose of this study was to identify different types of clients who use home and community-based services. Design and Methods: Enrollment characteristics of 76 clients at risk of nursing home placement and Medicaid spend-down who were enrolled in the Virginia Community Living Program were analyzed. Two-step cluster analysis identified 4 groups of service users. Results: Enabling resources (caregiver relationship to participant, participant living arrangement, and length of time caregiver provided assistance to participant) and disability type (physical, cognitive, traumatic brain injury, or other) differentiated the client groups. Groups differed on average service cost per day and likelihood of nursing home placement if services were not provided. Implications: Findings point to the value of having practitioners assist vulnerable clients in tailoring services to meet different care needs and the need for refining policies guiding home and community-based care.