A transformation in the mechanism by which the urokinase receptor signals provides a selection advantage for estrogen receptor-expressing breast cancer cells in the absence of estrogen.

Binding of urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) to its receptor, uPAR, in estrogen receptor-α (ERα) expressing breast cancer cells, transiently activates ERK downstream of FAK, Src family kinases, and H-Ras. Herein, we show that when uPAR is over-expressed, in two separate ERα-positive breast cancer cell lines, ERK activation occurs autonomously of uPA and is sustained. Autonomous ERK activation by uPAR requires H-Ras and Rac1. A mutated form of uPAR, which does not bind vitronectin (uPAR-W32A), failed to induce autonomous ERK activation. Expression of human uPAR or mouse uPAR but not uPAR-W32A in MCF-7 cells provided a selection advantage when these cells were deprived of estrogen in cell culture for two weeks. Similarly, MCF-7 cells that express mouse uPAR formed xenografts in SCID mice that survived and increased in volume in the absence of estrogen supplementation, probably reflecting the pro-survival activity of phospho-ERK. Autonomous uPAR signaling to ERK was sensitive to the EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors, Erlotinib and Gefitinib. The transition in uPAR signaling from uPA-dependent and transient to autonomous and sustained is reminiscent of the transformation in ErbB2/HER2 signaling observed when this gene is amplified in breast cancer. uPAR over-expression may provide a pathway for escape of breast cancer cells from ERα-targeting therapeutics.

Cell signaling by urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor induces stem cell-like properties in breast cancer cells.

Signaling by urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR) can cause epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in cultured breast cancer cells. In this report, we show that uPAR signaling can also induce cancer stem cell (CSC)-like properties. Ectopic overexpression of uPAR in human MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cells promoted the emergence of a CD24(-)/CD44(+) phenotype, characteristic of CSCs, while increasing the cell surface abundance of integrin subunits ß1/CD29 and α6/CD49f that represent putative mammary gland stem cell biomarkers. uPAR overexpression increased mammosphere formation in vitro and tumor formation in an immunocompromized severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mouse model of orthotopic breast cancer. Hypoxic conditions that are known to induce EMT in MDA-MB-468 cells also increased cell surface ß1/CD29, mimicking the effects of uPAR overexpression. Antagonizing uPAR effector signaling pathways reversed the increase in cell surface integrin expression. Whereas uPAR overexpression did not induce EMT in MCF-7 breast cancer cells, CSC-like properties were nevertheless still induced along with an increase in tumor initiation and growth in the orthotopic setting in SCID mice. Notably, in MCF-7 cell mammospheres, which display a well-defined acinus-like structure with polarized expression of E-cadherin and ß1-integrin, cell collapse into the central cavity was decreased by uPAR overexpression, suggesting that uPAR signaling may stabilize epithelial morphology. In summary, our findings show that uPAR signaling can induce CSC-like properties in breast cancer cells, either concomitantly with or separately from EMT.

Acute infection with venezuelan equine encephalitis virus replicon particles catalyzes a systemic antiviral state and protects from lethal virus challenge.

The host innate immune response provides a critical first line of defense against invading pathogens, inducing an antiviral state to impede the spread of infection. While numerous studies have documented antiviral responses within actively infected tissues, few have described the earliest innate response induced systemically by infection. Here, utilizing Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEE) replicon particles (VRP) to limit infection to the initially infected cells in vivo, a rapid activation of the antiviral response was demonstrated not only within the murine draining lymph node, where replication was confined, but also within distal tissues. In the liver and brain, expression of interferon-stimulated genes was detected by 1 to 3 h following VRP footpad inoculation, reaching peak expression of >100-fold over that in mock-infected animals. Moreover, mice receiving a VRP footpad inoculation 6, 12, or 24 h prior to an otherwise lethal VEE footpad challenge were completely protected from death, including a drastic reduction in challenge virus titers. VRP pretreatment also provided protection from intranasal VEE challenge and extended the average survival time following intracranial challenge. Signaling through the interferon receptor was necessary for antiviral gene induction and protection from VEE challenge. However, VRP pretreatment failed to protect mice from a heterologous, lethal challenge with vesicular stomatitis virus, yet conferred protection following challenge with influenza virus. Collectively, these results document a rapid modulation of the host innate response within hours of infection, capable of rapidly alerting the entire animal to pathogen invasion and leading to protection from viral disease.