Zooplankton-based adverse outcome pathways: A tool for assessing endocrine disrupting compounds in aquatic environments.

Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) pose a significant ecological risk, particularly in aquatic ecosystems. EDCs have become a focal point in ecotoxicology, and their identification and regulation have become a priority. Zooplankton have gained global recognition as bioindicators, benefiting from rigorous standardization and regulatory validation processes. This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of zooplankton-based adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) with a focus on EDCs as toxicants and the utilisation of freshwater zooplankton as bioindicators in ecotoxicological assessments. This review presents case studies in which zooplankton have been used in the development of AOPs, emphasizing the identification of molecular initiating events (MIEs) and key events (KEs) specific to zooplankton exposed to EDCs. Zooplankton-based AOPs may become an important resource for understanding the intricate processes by which EDCs impair the endocrine system. Furthermore, the data sources, experimental approaches, advantages, and challenges associated with zooplankton-based AOPs are discussed. Zooplankton-based AOPs framework can provide vital tools for consolidating toxicological knowledge into a structured toxicity pathway of EDCs, offering a transformative platform for facilitating enhanced risk assessment and chemical regulation.

Public perception on human exposure risk: A case study on endocrine disrupting compounds in the environment.

Humans are exposed to environmental risks owing to the broad usage of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). However, the subjective evaluation of risk levels and characteristics, as well as the variation in risk processing, have not been thoroughly examined. The objective was to understand the public's perception of the risk associated with human exposure to environmental EDCs and identify any variations in risk perception. In this pioneering study conducted within the distinctive social and cultural context of Malaysia, a developing nation, a quantitative analysis approach was employed to assess the subjective evaluation of risk levels and characteristics among the public while developing a risk perception model. Data gathered from surveys and questionnaires were analyzed to gather information on the public's perception of environmental and health issues pertaining to pesticides, hormones, plastics, medicines, and cosmetics. The analysis revealed that the majority of the public assessed the level of human exposure to environmental risks based on experiential processing, which was influenced by cognitive and affective variables. Interestingly, a higher proportion of individuals in the community had a low risk perception of environmental EDCs, surpassing the overall risk perception by 19.3%. Furthermore, the public showed significant awareness of environmental and health issues related to pesticides, hormones, and plastics but had a lesser inclination to acknowledge the vulnerability of humans to risks associated with medicines and cosmetics. These findings suggest that the public is likely to be exposed to environmental EDCs based on their current perceived risks, and that sociopsychological factors play a significant role in shaping perceptions and judgments. This understanding can inform the development of targeted risk management strategies and interventions to mitigate the potential harm caused by environmental EDCs.

Environmental impacts, exposure pathways, and health effects of PFOA and PFOS.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic chemicals that have been widely utilized in various industries since the 1940s, and have now emerged as environmental contaminants. In recent years, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) have been restricted and replaced with several alternatives. The high persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity of these substances have contributed to their emergence as environmental contaminants, and several aspects of their behavior remain largely unknown and require further investigation. The trace level of PFAS makes the development of a monitoring database challenging. Additionally, the potential health issues associated with PFAS are not yet fully understood due to ongoing research and inadequate evidence (experimental and epidemiological studies), especially with regard to the combined effects of exposure to PFAS mixtures and human health risks from drinking water consumption. This in-depth review offers unprecedented insights into the exposure pathways and toxicological impacts of PFAS, addressing critical knowledge gaps in their behaviors and health implications. It presents a comprehensive NABC-Needs, Approach, Benefits, and Challenges-analysis to guide future strategies for the sustainable monitoring and management of these pervasive environmental contaminants.

Potential of biocompatible calcium-based metal-organic frameworks for the removal of endocrine-disrupting compounds in aqueous environments.

Rapid urbanization, industrialization and population growth have accelerated the amount and variety of emerging contaminants being released into the aqueous environment, including endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs). The introduction of these compounds constitutes a threat to human health and the environment, even at trace levels. Hence, new water treatment technologies are urgently required to effectively remove EDCs from water. The currently available technologies used in water remediation processes are expensive and ineffective, and some produce harmful by-products. Calcium-based metal-organic frameworks (Ca-MOFs) are porous synthetic materials that can potentially be applied as adsorbents. These MOFs are hydrolytically stable, biocompatible and low-cost compared with conventional porous materials. The structure of Ca-MOFs is maintained even though calcium metal centers in the structure can easily coordinate with water. Ca-MOFs and their composite derivatives have the potential for use in water purification because these biocompatible adsorbents have been shown to selectively extract a significant quantity of contaminants. This review highlights the potential of Ca-MOFs to adsorb EDCs from aqueous environments and discusses adsorbent preparation methods, adsorption mechanisms, removal capacity, water stability and recyclability. This review will support future efforts in synthesizing new biocompatible MOFs as an environmental treatment technology that can effectively remove EDCs from water, thereby improving environmental and human health.

Occurrence, potential sources and ecological risk estimation of microplastic towards coastal and estuarine zones in Malaysia.

Extensive global plastic production has led to microplastic (MP) pollution of marine ecosystems. This study analysed the abundance of MPs in the surface water of tropical coastal and estuarine zones in Malaysia affected by rapid urbanisation and intense human activity. It also estimated the risk posed by MPs to the marine environment. Mean MP abundance ranged from 2.10 to 6.80 particles/L. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopic analysis found that the MP polymers were dominated by cellophane (54%), followed by polyester (33%) and polyethylene (2%). The risk posed by MPs was estimated with the risk quotient (RQ) method which found no potential ecological risk to both coastal and estuarine areas (RQ < 1). This study will serve as a baseline for future monitoring of MP pollution of marine water to assess the impact of heavily urbanised coastal and estuarine zones.

Pharmaceuticals, hormones, plasticizers, and pesticides in drinking water.

Humans are exposed to endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in tap water via drinking water. Currently, most of the analytical methods used to assess a long list of EDCs in drinking water have been made available only for a single group of EDCs and their metabolites, in contrast with other environmental matrices (e.g., surface water, sediments, and biota) for which more robust methods have been developed that allow detection of multiple groups. This study reveals an analytical method of one-step solid phase extraction, incorporated together with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the quantification of multiclass EDCs (i.e., pharmaceuticals, hormones, plasticizers, and pesticides) in drinking water. Fifteen multiclass EDCs significantly varied in amount between field samples (p < 0.05), with a maximum concentration of 17.63 ng/L observed. Daily exposure via drinking water is unlikely to pose a health risk (risk quotient < 1). This method serves as an analytical protocol for tracing multiclass EDC contamination in tap water as part of a multibarrier approach to ensure safe drinking water for good health and well-being. It represents a simpler one-step alternative tool for drinking water analysis, thereby avoiding the time-consuming and expensive multi-extraction steps that are generally needed for analyzing multiclass EDCs.

Processing of natural fibre and method improvement for removal of endocrine-disrupting compounds.

Persistent endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) in bodies of water are a concern for human health and constitute an environmental issue, even if present in trace amounts. Conventional treatment systems do not entirely remove EDCs from discharge effluent. Due to the ultra-trace level of EDCs which affect human health and pose an environmental issue, developing new approaches and techniques to remove these micropollutants from the discharged effluent is vital. This review discusses the most common methods of eliminating EDCs through preliminary, primary, secondary and tertiary treatments. The adsorption process is favoured for EDC removal, as it is an economical and straightforward option. The NABC aspects, which are the need, approach, benefits and challenges, were analysed based on existing circumstances, highlighting biochar as a green and renewable adsorbent for the removal of organic contaminants. From the environmental point of view, the effectiveness of this method, which uses natural fibre from the kenaf plant as a porous and economical biochar material with a selected lignocellulosic biomass, provides insights into the advantages of biochar-derived adsorbents. Essentially, the improvement of the natural fibre as an adsorbent is a focus, using carbonisation, activation, and the physiochemical process to enhance the adsorption ability of the material for pollutants in bodies of water. This output will complement sustainable water management approaches presented in previous studies for combating the emerging pollutant crisis via novel green and environmentally safe options.

Accumulation and risk assessment of heavy metals employing species sensitivity distributions in Linggi River, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.

The constant increase of heavy metals into the aqueous environment has become a contemporary global issue of concern to government authorities and the public. The study assesses the concentration, distribution, and risk assessment of heavy metals in freshwater from the Linggi River, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. Species sensitivity distribution (SSD) was utilised to calculate the cumulative probability distribution of toxicity from heavy metals. The aquatic organism's toxicity data obtained from the ECOTOXicology knowledgebase (ECOTOX) was used to estimate the predictive non-effects concentration (PNEC). The decreasing sequence of hazardous concentration (HC5) was manganese > aluminium > copper > lead > arsenic > cadmium > nickel > zinc > selenium, respectively. The highest heavy metal concentration was iron with a mean value of 45.77 µg L-1, followed by manganese (14.41 µg L-1) and aluminium (11.72 µg L-1). The mean heavy metal pollution index (HPI) value in this study is 11.52, implying low-level heavy metal pollutions in Linggi River. The risk quotient (RQ) approaches were applied to assess the potential risk of heavy metals. The RQ shows a medium risk of aluminium (RQm = 0.1125) and zinc (RQm = 0.1262); a low risk of arsenic (RQm = 0.0122) and manganese (RQm = 0.0687); and a negligible risk of cadmium (RQm = 0.0085), copper (RQm = 0.0054), nickel (RQm = 0.0054), lead (RQm = 0.0016) and selenium (RQm = 0.0012). The output of this study produces comprehensive pollution risk, thus provides insights for the legislators regarding exposure management and mitigation.

Occurrence and distribution of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in mariculture fish and the human health implications.

The presence and distribution of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the mariculture fish from Pulau Kukup, Johor of Malaysia have been studied along with the impact on human health. Six different species of mariculture fish were collected, due to their high consumption in the Asian region-especially Malaysia, to assess their levels of EDCs. The highest concentration of EDCs detected in the muscle was dexamethasone (2.37-15.84 ng/g) and (0.77-13.41 ng/g), in the liver was dexamethasone (<2.54-43.56 ng/g) and progesterone (2.23-9.78 ng/g), and in the reproductive organ are dexamethasone (<2.54-37.23 ng/g) and caffeine (0.21-18.92 ng/g). The human health risk assessment in the current study suggested that there is no potential risk to the consumer because the hazard index was below 1 (HI < 1). The present study provides information on the pollution profile of EDCs and the associated human health risk with EDCs in mariculture fish.

Tap water contamination: Multiclass endocrine disrupting compounds in different housing types in an urban settlement.

Contamination of endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in tap water is an emerging global issue, and there are abundant influencing factors that have an ambivalent effect on their transportation and fate. Different housing types vary in terms of water distribution system operation and design, water consumption choices, and other hydraulic factors, which potentially affect the dynamics, loadings, and partitioning of pollutants in tap water. Thus, this study analyzed 18 multiclass EDCs in tap water from different housing types (i.e., landed and high-rise) and the associated health risks. Sample analyses revealed the presence of 16 EDCs, namely hormones (5), pharmaceuticals (8), a pesticide (1), and plasticizers (2) in tap water, with the prevalent occurrence of bisphenol A up to 66.40 ng/L in high-rise housing. The presence of caffeine and sulfamethoxazole distribution in tap water was significantly different between landed and high-rise housings (t(152) = -2.298, p = 0.023 and t(109) = 2.135, p = 0.035). Moreover, the salinity and conductivity of tap water in high-rise housings were significantly higher compared to those in landed housings (t(122) = 2.411, p = 0.017 and t(94) = 2.997, p = 0.003, respectively). Furthermore, there were no potential health risks of EDCs (risk quotient < 1) estimated in different age groups via drinking water intake. However, EDC variation in different housing types requires simulation of the occurrence, transport, and fate of EDCs in the distribution system and investigation of the underlying factors for effective mitigation, prevention, and intervention.

Occurrence of multiclass endocrine disrupting compounds in a drinking water supply system and associated risks.

Contamination by endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) concerns the security and sustainability of a drinking water supply system and human exposure via water consumption. This study analyzed the selected EDCs in source (river water, n = 10) and supply (tap water, n = 155) points and the associated risks. A total of 14 multiclass EDCs was detected in the drinking water supply system in Malaysia. Triclosan (an antimicrobial agent) and 4-octylphenol (a plasticizer) were only detected in the tap water (up to 9.74 and 0.44 ng/L, respectively). Meanwhile, chloramphenicol and 4-nonylphenol in the system were below the method detection limits. Bisphenol A was observed to be highest in tap water at 66.40 ng/L (detection: 100%; median concentration: 0.28 ng/L). There was a significant difference in triclosan contamination between the river and tap water (p < 0.001). Overall, the life groups were estimated at no possible risk of EDCs (risk quotient < 1). Nonetheless, the results concern the transport and impact of EDCs on the drinking water supply system regarding treatment sustainability and water security. Further exploration of smart monitoring and management using Big Data and Internet of Things and the need to invent rapid, robust, sensitive, and efficient sensors is warranted.

Organophosphorus Pesticide Multiresidues in Commercialized Asian Rice.

The organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) commonly used in agricultural practices can pose a risk of potential exposure to humans via food consumption. We describe an analytical method for solid-phase extraction coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector (SPE-HPLC-DAD) for the detection of OPPs (quinalphos, diazinon, and chlorpyrifos) in rice grains. The isolation of targeted residues was initiated with double extraction before SPE-HPLC-DAD, crucially reducing matrix interferences and detecting a wide range of multiple residues in rice grains. Coefficients of 0.9968 to 0.9991 showed a strong linearity, with limits of detection and quantification ranging from 0.36 to 0.68 µg/kg and from 1.20 to 2.28 µg/kg, respectively. High recoveries (80.4-110.3%) were observed at 3 spiking levels (50, 100, and 200 µg/kg), indicating good accuracy. The relative standard deviations of all residues (0.19-8.66%) validated the method precision. Sample analysis of 10 rice grain types (n = 30) available in the Asian market revealed that quinalphos, diazinon, and chlorpyrifos at concentrations of 1.08, 1.11, and 1.79 µg/kg, respectively, remained far below the maximum residue limits (0.01-0.5 mg/kg). However, regular monitoring is necessary to confirm that multiresidue occurrence remains below permissible limits while controlling pests. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:1908-1917. © 2020 SETAC.

Occurrence and potential risk of organophosphorus pesticides in urbanised Linggi River, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.

The application of organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) increased gradually because of the rise in global food demand that triggered the agriculture sector to increase the production, leading to OPP residues in the surface water. This study elucidated the presence of OPPs and estimated its ecological risk in the riverine ecosystem of the urbanised Linggi River, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia. The OPP concentration in surface water was determined using solid-phase extraction method and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection. Further, the ecological risk was estimated by using the risk quotient (RQ) method. The three OPPs, i.e. chlorpyrifos, diazinon, and quinalphos were detected with mean concentrations of 0.0275 µg/L, 0.0328 µg/L, and 0.0362 µg/L, respectively. The OPPs were at high risk (in general and worst cases) under acute exposure. The estimated risk of diazinon was observed as medium for general (RQm = 0.5857) and high for worst cases (RQex = 4.4678). Notably, the estimated risk for chlorpyrifos was high for both general and worst cases (RQm = 1.9643 and RQex = 11.5643) towards the aquatic ecosystem of the Linggi River. Chronic risk of quinalphos remains unknown because of the absence of toxicity endpoints. This study presented clear knowledge regarding OPP contamination and possible risk for aquatic ecosystems. Hence, OPPs should be listed as one of the main priority contaminants in pesticide mitigation management in the future.

Active pharmaceutical ingredients in Malaysian drinking water: consumption, exposure, and human health risk.

Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are typical endocrine disruptors found in common pharmaceuticals and personal care products, which are frequently detected in aquatic environments, especially surface water treated for drinking. However, current treatment technologies are inefficient for removing emerging endocrine disruptors, leading to the potential contamination of tap water. This study employed an optimized analytical method comprising solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-LC-MS/MS) to detect APIs in tap water in Putrajaya, Malaysia. Several therapeutic classes of pharmaceuticals and personal care products, including anti-inflammatory drugs (dexamethasone and diclofenac), antibiotics (sulfamethoxazole and triclosan), antiepileptics (primidone), antibacterial agents (ciprofloxacin), beta-blockers (propranolol), psychoactive stimulants (caffeine), and antiparasitic drugs (diazinon), were detected in the range of < 0.03 to 21.39 ng/L, whereas chloramphenicol (an antibiotic) was below the detection limit (< 0.23 ng/L). A comparison with global data revealed the spatial variability of emerging tap water pollutants. Diclofenac accounted for the highest concentration (21.39 ng/L), followed by triclosan and ciprofloxacin (9.74 ng/L and 8.69 ng/L, respectively). Caffeine was observed in all field samples with the highest distribution at 35.32%. Caffeine and triclosan exhibited significantly different distributions in household tap water (p < 0.05). Humans are exposed to these APIs by drinking the tap water; however, the estimated risk was negligible (risk quotient < 1). APIs are useful water quality monitoring indicators for water resource conservation and water supply safety related to emerging organic contaminants; thus, API detection is important for safeguarding the environment and human health.

Occurrence of endocrine disrupting compounds in mariculture sediment of Pulau Kukup, Johor, Malaysia.

Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) such as hormones, pesticides, phenolic compounds, and pharmaceuticals compounds can cause adverse effects on humans, animals, and other living organisms. One of the largest mariculture areas situated in Pulau Kukup, Johor, Malaysia, is actively involved in exporting marine fish to other countries worldwide. This paper aims to provide baseline data on the level of EDC pollutants found in mariculture sediments in Malaysia since no reports have investigated this issue. Calculated samples recovered are between 50.39 and 129.10% at 100 ng/g spiking level. The highest concentration in the sediment samples was bisphenol A (0.072-0.389 ng/g dry weight) followed by diethylstilbestrol (<0.208-0.331 ng/g dry weight) and propranolol (<0.250-0.275 ng/g dry weight). Even though the concentrations of the targeted compounds obtained were low, their effects could become more evident longer term, which raises not only environmental health concerns but the potential risk to humans.

Quantification of multi-classes of endocrine-disrupting compounds in estuarine water.

Emerging pollutants known as endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) are a contemporary global issue, especially in aquatic ecosystems. As aquaculture production through mariculture activities in Malaysia supports food production, the concentration and distribution of EDCs in estuarine water ecosystems may have changed. Therefore, this current study aims to prepare a suitable and reliable method for application on environmental samples. Besides, this study also presented the occurrence of EDCs pollutant in Pulau Kukup, Johor, where the biggest and most active mariculture site in Malaysia takes place. Analytical methods based on a combination of solid-phase extraction with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (Solid-phase extraction (SPE)-LC-MS/MS) have been modified and optimised to examine the level of targeted EDCs contaminant. In the current study, this method displays high extraction recovery for targeted EDCs, ranging from 92.02% to 132.32%. The highest concentration detected is diclofenac (<0.47-79.89 ng/L) followed by 17ß-estradiol (E2) (<5.28-31.43 ng/L) and 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE2) (<0.30-7.67 ng/L). The highest percentage distribution for the targeted EDCs in the current study is diclofenac, followed by EE2 and dexamethasone with the percentages of 99.44%, 89.53% and 73.23%, respectively. This current study can be a baseline assessment to understand the pollution profile of EDCs and their distribution in the estuarine water of the mariculture site throughout the world, especially in Malaysia. Owing to the significant concentration of targeted EDCs detected in water samples, the need for further monitoring in the future is required.

Occurrence and risk assessment of multiclass endocrine disrupting compounds in an urban tropical river and a proposed risk management and monitoring framework.

Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) are an emerging environmental concern and commonly occur as a mixture of compounds. The EDC mixture can be more toxic than any single compound. The present study analyses EDCs in surface water in the case of an urban tropical river, the Langat River, using the multiresidue analytical method of solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-LC-MS/MS). The Langat River is used as a drinking water source and is treated for Malaysian drinking water supply. A total of 14 EDCs i.e. five hormones, seven pharmaceuticals, one pesticide, and one plasticizer were detected. Caffeine was observed to be highest at 19.33 ng/L, followed by bisphenol A and diclofenac at 8.24 ng/L and 6.15 ng/L, respectively. Using a conservative risk quotient (RQ) method, EDCs were estimated for having negligible risks under acute and chronic exposure (RQ < 0.002 and RQmix < 0.003; RQ < 0.01), suggesting that there is currently an insignificant ecological risk related to these compounds in the Langat River riverine ecosystem. However, the presence of EDCs in surface water raises concerns about potential human exposure to EDCs via dietary intake i.e. food and drinking water supply. Although the ecological risks are considered negligible, these risks should not be neglected in terms of future prioritization and risk management. Improvements in water quality monitoring and risk assessment in water source protection are required to support a multibarrier approach to managing drinking water supply systems for safe water supply. The present study proposes a risk management and monitoring framework for EDCs to support the aforementioned multibarrier approach.

Bisphenol A and alkylphenols concentrations in selected mariculture fish species from Pulau Kukup, Johor, Malaysia.

Endocrine disrupting compound (EDC) contamination in food is a global concern. Concerning potential environmental and human health exposed to EDCs via food intake, an experiment was conducted on the selected EDCs concentration in the mariculture fish, Trachinotus blochii (golden pomfret), Lutjanus campechanus (snapper), and Lates calcarifer (sea bass) at Pulau Kukup, Johor. Mariculture activity at Pulau Kukup involves active export of fishes to Singapore and Indonesia. The recovery of BPA (bisphenol A), 4OP (4-octylphenol), and 4NP (4-nonylphenol) were 61.54%-93.00%, 16.79%-17.13%, and 61.24%-71.49%, respectively. Relatively high concentration of BPA was recorded in T. blochii (0.322ng/g), followed by L. calcarifer (0.124ng/g) and L. campechanus (0.023ng/g). Furthermore, 4OP and 4NP were detected only in T. blochii at concentrations of 0.084ng/g and 0.078ng/g, respectively. The results of the present study provide insights on monitoring and managing mariculture activity in relation to environmental protection and food safety.

Ecological risk estimation of organophosphorus pesticides in riverine ecosystems.

Pesticides are of great concern because of their existence in ecosystems at trace concentrations. Worldwide pesticide use and its ecological impacts (i.e., altered environmental distribution and toxicity of pesticides) have increased over time. Exposure and toxicity studies are vital for reducing the extent of pesticide exposure and risk to the environment and humans. Regional regulatory actions may be less relevant in some regions because the contamination and distribution of pesticides vary across regions and countries. The risk quotient (RQ) method was applied to assess the potential risk of organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs), primarily focusing on riverine ecosystems. Using the available ecotoxicity data, aquatic risks from OPPs (diazinon and chlorpyrifos) in the surface water of the Langat River, Selangor, Malaysia were evaluated based on general (RQm) and worst-case (RQex) scenarios. Since the ecotoxicity of quinalphos has not been well established, quinalphos was excluded from the risk assessment. The calculated RQs indicate medium risk (RQm = 0.17 and RQex = 0.66; 0.1 ≤ RQ < 1) of overall diazinon. The overall chlorpyrifos exposure was observed at high risk (RQ ≥ 1) based on RQm and RQex at 1.44 and 4.83, respectively. A contradictory trend of RQs > 1 (high risk) was observed for both the general and worst cases of chlorpyrifos, but only for the worst cases of diazinon at all sites from downstream to upstream regions. Thus, chlorpyrifos posed a higher risk than diazinon along the Langat River, suggesting that organisms and humans could be exposed to potentially high levels of OPPs.