Tyrosine residues in the cytoplasmic domains affect sorting and fusion activity of the Nipah virus glycoproteins in polarized epithelial cells.

The highly pathogenic Nipah virus (NiV) is aerially transmitted and causes a systemic infection after entering the respiratory tract. Airway epithelia are thus important targets in primary infection. Furthermore, virus replication in the mucosal surfaces of the respiratory or urinary tract in later phases of infection is essential for virus shedding and transmission. So far, the mechanisms of NiV replication in epithelial cells are poorly elucidated. In the present study, we provide evidence that bipolar targeting of the two NiV surface glycoproteins G and F is of biological importance for fusion in polarized epithelia. We demonstrate that infection of polarized cells induces focus formation, with both glycoproteins located at lateral membranes of infected cells adjacent to uninfected cells. Supporting the idea of a direct spread of infection via lateral cell-to-cell fusion, we could identify basolateral targeting signals in the cytoplasmic domains of both NiV glycoproteins. Tyrosine 525 in the F protein is part of an endocytosis signal and is also responsible for basolateral sorting. Surprisingly, we identified a dityrosine motif at position 28/29 in the G protein, which mediates polarized targeting. A dileucine motif predicted to function as sorting signal is not involved. Mutation of the targeting signal in one of the NiV glycoproteins prevented the fusion of polarized cells, suggesting that basolateral or bipolar F and G expression facilitates the spread of NiV within epithelial cell monolayers, thereby contributing to efficient virus spread in mucosal surfaces in early and late phases of infection.

Hap2 regulates the pheromone response transcription factor prf1 in Ustilago maydis.

In Ustilago maydis the pheromone signal is transmitted via a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) module to the transcription factor Prf1. Prf1 activates transcription of a and b mating type genes by binding to pheromone response elements (PREs) located in regulatory regions of these genes. Here we show that the CCAAT-box binding protein Hap2 from U. maydis regulates prf1 expression. Hap2 was initially identified as a potential interaction partner of the MAP kinase Kpp6 in yeast two-hybrid screens and was subsequently also shown to interact with the MAPK Kpp2. Deletion of hap2 in haploid cells abolished mating, resulting from a defect in pheromone-induced gene expression. Crosses of haploid hap2 deletion strains were completely impaired in pathogenicity. Constitutive expression of prf1 complemented the pheromone response defect in Δhap2 strains. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays indicated that Hap2 binds directly to CCAAT motifs in the prf1 promoter. Point mutations in two putative MAPK phosphorylation sites in Hap2 attenuated the pheromone response. In a solopathogenic strain hap2 deletion affected filamentation and the mutants showed reduced pathogenicity symptoms. These data suggest that Hap2 is a novel regulator of prf1 with additional functions after cell fusion.

Physical-chemical plant-derived signals induce differentiation in Ustilago maydis.

Ustilago maydis is able to initiate pathogenic development after fusion of two haploid cells with different mating type. On the maize leaf surface, the resulting dikaryon switches to filamentous growth, differentiates appressoria and penetrates the host. Here, we report on the plant signals required for filament formation and appressorium development in U. maydis. In vitro, hydroxy-fatty acids stimulate filament formation via the induction of pheromone genes and this signal can be bypassed by genetically activating the downstream MAP kinase module. Hydrophobicity also induces filaments and these resemble the dikaryotic filaments formed on the plant surface. With the help of a marker gene that is specifically expressed in the tip cell of those hyphae that have formed an appressorium, hydrophobicity is shown to be essential for appressorium development in vitro. Hydroxy-fatty acids or a cutin monomer mixture isolated from maize leaves have a stimulatory role when a hydrophobic surface is provided. Our results suggest that the early phase of communication between U. maydis and its host plant is governed by two different stimuli.