A Novel Nanobody Precisely Visualizes Phosphorylated Histone H2AX in Living Cancer Cells under Drug-Induced Replication Stress.

Histone H2AX phosphorylated at serine 139 (γ-H2AX) is a hallmark of DNA damage, signaling the presence of DNA double-strand breaks and global replication stress in mammalian cells. While γ-H2AX can be visualized with antibodies in fixed cells, its detection in living cells was so far not possible. Here, we used immune libraries and phage display to isolate nanobodies that specifically bind to γ-H2AX. We solved the crystal structure of the most soluble nanobody in complex with the phosphopeptide corresponding to the C-terminus of γ-H2AX and show the atomic constituents behind its specificity. We engineered a bivalent version of this nanobody and show that bivalency is essential to quantitatively visualize γ-H2AX in fixed drug-treated cells. After labelling with a chemical fluorophore, we were able to detect γ-H2AX in a single-step assay with the same sensitivity as with validated antibodies. Moreover, we produced fluorescent nanobody-dTomato fusion proteins and applied a transduction strategy to visualize with precision γ-H2AX foci present in intact living cells following drug treatment. Together, this novel tool allows performing fast screenings of genotoxic drugs and enables to study the dynamics of this particular chromatin modification in individual cancer cells under a variety of conditions.

Cytosolic PCNA interacts with p47phox and controls NADPH oxidase NOX2 activation in neutrophils.

Neutrophils produce high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by NADPH oxidase that are crucial for host defense but can lead to tissue injury when produced in excess. We previously described that proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), a nuclear scaffolding protein pivotal in DNA synthesis, controls neutrophil survival through its cytosolic association with procaspases. We herein showed that PCNA associated with p47phox, a key subunit of NADPH oxidase, and that this association regulated ROS production. Surface plasmon resonance and crystallography techniques demonstrated that the interdomain-connecting loop of PCNA interacted directly with the phox homology (PX) domain of the p47phox. PCNA inhibition by competing peptides or by T2AA, a small-molecule PCNA inhibitor, decreased NADPH oxidase activation in vitro. Furthermore, T2AA provided a therapeutic benefit in mice during trinitro-benzene-sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis by decreasing oxidative stress, accelerating mucosal repair, and promoting the resolution of inflammation. Our data suggest that targeting PCNA in inflammatory neutrophils holds promise as a multifaceted antiinflammatory strategy.

Visualization of Endogenous Transcription Factors in Single Cells Using an Antibody Electroporation-Based Imaging Approach.

In this chapter, we describe an antibody electroporation-based imaging approach that allows for precise imaging and quantification of endogenous transcription factor (i.e., RNA Polymerase II) distributions in single cells using 3D structured illumination microscopy (3D-SIM). The labeling is achieved by the efficient and harmless delivery of fluorescent dye-conjugated antibodies into living cells and the specific binding of these antibodies to the targeted factors. Our step-by-step protocol describes the procedure of the labeling of the specific antibodies, their electroporation into living cells, the sample preparation and 3D-SIM imaging as well as the postimaging analyses of the labeled endogenous transcription factors to obtain information about their nuclear distribution as well as their function. This protocol can be applied to a plethora of endogenous nuclear factors by using target specific noninhibiting antibodies.

Biocompatible gold nanoclusters: synthetic strategies and biomedical prospects.

The latest advances concerning ultra-small gold nanoparticles (≤2 nm) commonly known as gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) are reviewed and discussed in the context of biological and biomedical applications (labeling, delivery, imaging and therapy). A great diversity of synthetic methods has been developed and optimized aiming to improve the chemical structures and physicochemical properties of the resulting AuNCs. The main synthetic approaches were surveyed with emphasis on methods leading to water-soluble AuNCs since aqueous solutions are the preferred media for biological applications. The most representative and recent experimental results are discussed in relationship to their potential for biomedical applications.

Uniform Widespread Nuclear Phosphorylation of Histone H2AX Is an Indicator of Lethal DNA Replication Stress.

Phosphorylated histone H2AX (γ-H2AX), a central player in the DNA damage response (DDR), serves as a biomarker of DNA double-strand break repair. Although DNA damage is generally visualized by the formation of γ-H2AX foci in injured nuclei, it is unclear whether the widespread uniform nuclear γ-H2AX (called pan-nuclear) pattern occurring upon intense replication stress (RS) is linked to DDR. Using a novel monoclonal antibody that binds exclusively to the phosphorylated C-terminus of H2AX, we demonstrate that H2AX phosphorylation is systematically pan-nuclear in cancer cells stressed with RS-inducing drugs just before they die. The pan-nuclear γ-H2AX pattern is abolished by inhibition of the DNA-PK kinase. Cell death induction of cancer cells treated with increasing combinations of replication and kinase (ATR and Chk1) inhibitory drugs was proportional to the appearance of pan-nuclear γ-H2AX pattern. Delivery of labeled anti-γ-H2AX Fabs in stressed cells demonstrated at a single cell level that pan-nuclear γ-H2AX formation precedes irreversible cell death. Moreover, we show that H2AX is not required for RS-induced cell death in HeLa cells. Thus, the nuclear-wide formation of γ-H2AX is an incident of RS-induced cell death and, thus, the pan nuclear H2AX pattern should be regarded as an indicator of lethal RS-inducing drug efficacy.

A Two-Step Approach for the Design and Generation of Nanobodies.

Nanobodies, the smallest possible antibody format, have become of considerable interest for biotechnological and immunotherapeutic applications. They show excellent robustness, are non-immunogenic in humans, and can easily be engineered and produced in prokaryotic hosts. Traditionally, nanobodies are selected from camelid immune libraries involving the maintenance and treatment of animals. Recent advances have involved the generation of nanobodies from naïve or synthetic libraries. However, such approaches demand large library sizes and sophisticated selection procedures. Here, we propose an alternative, two-step approach for the design and generation of nanobodies. In a first step, complementarity-determining regions (CDRs) are grafted from conventional antibody formats onto nanobody frameworks, generating weak antigen binders. In a second step, the weak binders serve as templates to design focused synthetic phage libraries for affinity maturation. We validated this approach by grafting toxin- and hapten-specific CDRs onto frameworks derived from variable domains of camelid heavy-chain-only antibodies (VHH). We then affinity matured the hapten binder via panning of a synthetic phage library. We suggest that this strategy can complement existing immune, naïve, and synthetic library based methods, requiring neither animal experiments, nor large libraries, nor sophisticated selection protocols.

Electroporation of Labeled Antibodies to Visualize Endogenous Proteins and Posttranslational Modifications in Living Metazoan Cell Types.

The spatiotemporal localization of different intracellular factors in real-time and their detection in live cells are important parameters to understand dynamic protein-based processes. Therefore, there is a demand to perform live-cell imaging and to measure endogenous protein dynamics in single cells. However, fluorescent labeling of endogenous protein in living cells without overexpression of fusion proteins or genetic tagging has not been routinely possible. Here we describe a versatile antibody-based imaging approach (VANIMA) to be able to precisely locate and track endogenous proteins in living cells. The labeling is achieved by the efficient and harmless delivery of fluorescent dye-conjugated antibodies or antibody fragments (Fabs) into living cells and the specific binding of these antibodies to the target protein inside of the cell. Our protocol describes step by step the procedure from testing of the suitability of the desired antibody, over the digestion of the antibody to Fabs until the labeling and the delivery by electroporation of the antibody or Fab into the cells. VANIMA can be adapted to any monoclonal antibody, self-produced or commercial, and many different metazoan cell lines. Additionally, our method is simple to implement and can be used not only to visualize and track endogenous factors, but also to specifically label posttranslational modifications, which cannot be achieved by any other labeling technique so far.

Imaging of native transcription factors and histone phosphorylation at high resolution in live cells.

Fluorescent labeling of endogenous proteins for live-cell imaging without exogenous expression of tagged proteins or genetic manipulations has not been routinely possible. We describe a simple versatile antibody-based imaging approach (VANIMA) for the precise localization and tracking of endogenous nuclear factors. Our protocol can be implemented in every laboratory allowing the efficient and nonharmful delivery of organic dye-conjugated antibodies, or antibody fragments, into different metazoan cell types. Live-cell imaging permits following the labeled probes bound to their endogenous targets. By using conventional and super-resolution imaging we show dynamic changes in the distribution of several nuclear transcription factors (i.e., RNA polymerase II or TAF10), and specific phosphorylated histones (γH2AX), upon distinct biological stimuli at the nanometer scale. Hence, considering the large panel of available antibodies and the simplicity of their implementation, VANIMA can be used to uncover novel biological information based on the dynamic behavior of transcription factors or posttranslational modifications in the nucleus of single live cells.

A fast method for analyzing essential protein mutants in human cells.

Here we developed a complementation method for the study of essential genes in live human cells using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Proteins encoded by essential genes were expressed using a derivative of the pCEP4 compensating plasmid in combination with Cas9 endonuclease targeting of the chromosomal genes. We show that this strategy can be applied to essential genes, such as those coding for proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and DNA polymerase delta subunit 2 (POLD2). As demonstrated for the PCNA protein, our method allows mutational analysis of essential protein-coding sequences in live cells.

Targeting the replisome with transduced monoclonal antibodies triggers lethal DNA replication stress in cancer cells.

Although chemical inhibition of the DNA damage response (DDR) in cancer cells triggers cell death, it is not clear if the fork blockade achieved with inhibitors that neutralise proteins of the replisome is sufficient on its own to overcome the DDR. Monoclonal antibodies to PCNA, which block the DNA elongation process in vitro, have been developed. When these antibodies were transduced into cancer cells, they are able to inhibit the incorporation of nucleoside analogues. When co-delivered with anti-PCNA siRNA, the cells were flattened and the size of their nuclei increased by up to 3-fold, prior to cell death. Analysis of these nuclei by super-resolution microscopy revealed the presence of large numbers of phosphorylated histone H2AX foci. A senescence-like phenotype of the transduced cells was also observed upon delivery of the corresponding Fab molecules or following PCNA gene disruption or when the Fab fragment of an antibody that neutralises DNA polymerase alpha was used. Primary melanoma cells and leukaemia cells that are resistant to chemical inhibitors were similarly affected by these antibody treatments. These results demonstrate that transduced antibodies can trigger a lethal DNA replication stress, which kills cancer cells by abolishing the biological activity of several constituents of the replisome.

New fluorescein precursors for live bacteria detection.

Swiftness, reliability, and sensitivity of live bacteria detection in drinking water are key issues for human safety. The most widespread used indicator of live bacteria is a caged form of carboxyfluorescein in which 3' and 6' hydroxyl groups are masked as acetate esters (CFDA). This derivatization altogether abolishes fluorescein fluorescence and renders the molecule prone to passive diffusion through bacterial membranes. Once in the cytoplasm, acetate groups from CFDA are removed by bacterial hydrolases and fluorescence develops, rendering live but not dead cells detectable. Yet the reagent, carboxyfluorescein diacetate, still possesses a free carboxyl group whose ionization constant is such that the majority of the probe is charged at physiological pH. This unfavors probe permeation through membranes. Here, we prepare several chemical modifications of the carboxyl moiety of CFDA, in order to neutralize its charge and improve its passive diffusion through membranes. We show that the ethylamido derivative of the 5-carboxyl group from 5-carboxy-fluorescein diacetate or from Oregon green diacetate or from Oregon green diacetoxymethylester are stable molecules in biological media, penetrate into bacterial cells and are metabolized into fluorescent species. Only live bacteria are revealed since bleached samples are not labeled. Other derivatives with modification of the 5-carboxyl group with an ester group or with a thiourea-based moiety were almost inefficient probes. The most interesting probe, triembarine (5-ethylaminocarboxy-oregon green, 3',6'diacetoxymethyl ester) leads to 6-10 times more sensitive detection of bacteria as compared to CFDA. Addition of contrast agents (trypan blue or brilliant blue R) improve the signal-to-noise ratio by quenching extracellular fluorescence while bromophenol blue quenches both intracellular and extracellular fluorescence, allowing standardization of detections.

Protein Delivery System Containing a Nickel-Immobilized Polymer for Multimerization of Affinity-Purified His-Tagged Proteins Enhances Cytosolic Transfer.

Recombinant proteins with cytosolic or nuclear activities are emerging as tools for interfering with cellular functions. Because such tools rely on vehicles for crossing the plasma membrane we developed a protein delivery system consisting in the assembly of pyridylthiourea-grafted polyethylenimine (πPEI) with affinity-purified His-tagged proteins pre-organized onto a nickel-immobilized polymeric guide. The guide was prepared by functionalization of an ornithine polymer with nitrilotriacetic acid groups and shown to bind several His-tagged proteins. Superstructures were visualized by electron and atomic force microscopy using 2 nm His-tagged gold nanoparticles as probes. The whole system efficiently carried the green fluorescent protein, single-chain antibodies or caspase 3, into the cytosol of living cells. Transduction of the protease caspase 3 induced apoptosis in two cancer cell lines, demonstrating that this new protein delivery method could be used to interfere with cellular functions.

Live cell immunogold labelling of RNA polymerase II.

Labeling nuclear proteins with electron dense probes in living cells has been a major challenge due to their inability to penetrate into nuclei. We developed a lipid-based approach for delivering antibodies coupled to 0.8 nm ultrasmall gold particles into the nucleus to label RNA polymerase II. Focussed Ion Beam slicing coupled to Scanning Electron Microscopy (FIB/SEM) enabled visualization of entire cells with probe localization accuracy in the 10 nm range.

Restricted diversity of antigen binding residues of antibodies revealed by computational alanine scanning of 227 antibody-antigen complexes.

Antibody molecules are able to recognize any antigen with high affinity and specificity. To get insight into the molecular diversity at the source of this functional diversity, we compiled and analyzed a non-redundant aligned collection of 227 structures of antibody-antigen complexes. Free energy of binding of all the residue side chains was quantified by computational alanine scanning, allowing the first large-scale quantitative description of antibody paratopes. This demonstrated that as few as 8 residues among 30 key positions are sufficient to explain 80% of the binding free energy in most complexes. At these positions, the residue distribution is not only different from that of other surface residues but also dependent on the role played by the side chain in the interaction, residues participating in the binding energy being mainly aromatic residues, and Gly or Ser otherwise. To question the generality of these binding characteristics, we isolated an antibody fragment by phage display using a biased synthetic repertoire with only two diversified complementarity-determining regions and solved its structure in complex with its antigen. Despite this restricted diversity, the structure demonstrated that all complementarity-determining regions were involved in the interaction with the antigen and that the rules derived from the natural antibody repertoire apply to this synthetic binder, thus demonstrating the robustness and universality of our results.

Generation of an intrabody-based reagent suitable for imaging endogenous proliferating cell nuclear antigen in living cancer cells.

Intrabodies, when expressed in cells after genetic fusion to fluorescent proteins, are powerful tools to study endogenous protein dynamics inside cells. However, it remains challenging to determine the conditions for specific imaging and precise labelling of the target antigen with such intracellularly expressed antibody fragments. Here, we show that single-chain Fv (scFv) antibody fragments can be generated that specifically recognize proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) when expressed in living cancer cells. After selection by phage display, the anti-PCNA scFvs were screened in vitro after being tagged with dimeric glutathione-S-transferase. Anti-PCNA scFvs of increased avidity were further engineered by mutagenesis with sodium bisulfite and error-prone PCR, such that they were almost equivalent to conventional antibodies in in vitro assays. These intrabodies were then rendered bifunctional by fusion to a C-terminal fragment of p21 protein and could thereby readily detect PCNA bound to chromatin in cells. Finally, by linking these optimized peptide-conjugated scFvs to an enhanced green fluorescent protein, fluorescent intrabody-based reagents were obtained that allowed the fate of PCNA in living cells to be examined. The approach described may be applicable to other scFvs that can be solubly expressed in cells, and it provides a unique means to recognize endogenous proteins in living cells with high accuracy.

Intracellular delivery of functionally active proteins using self-assembling pyridylthiourea-polyethylenimine.

Intracellular delivery of functionally active proteins into cells is emerging as a novel strategy for research and therapeutic applications. Here, we present the properties of a self-assembling pyridylthiourea-modified polyethylenimine (πPEI), which interacts with proteins and promotes their delivery into the cytosol of mammalian cells. In aqueous medium at pH7.4, self-association of πPEI in the presence of green fluorescent proteins (GFP) leads to supramolecular protein-entrapped assemblies. These assemblies protect GFP from losing its fluorescence upon pH variation and assist delivery/translocation into the cytosol of mammalian cells via the endocytic pathway. The scope of application of this delivery system was extended to antibodies against intracellular targets as illustrated using a monoclonal antibody directed against the HPV-16 viral E6 oncoprotein and an antibody directed against the threonine-927 phosporylation site of the EG5 kinesin spindle protein. The πPEI-mediated delivery of native anti-E6 antibodies or anti-E6 antibodies equipped with a nuclear localization signal (NLS), led to regeneration of the p53 tumor suppression protein in E6-transformed CaSki cells. Delivery of functionally active anti-EG5 antibodies, with the same polymer, reduced HeLa cell viability and appeared to perturb, as expected, chromosome segregation during mitosis. Altogether, these results provide an easy to use delivery system for extending the scope of application of antibodies for epitope recognition within living cells and may provide novel opportunities for selective interference of cell function by a steric hindrance modality.

Targeting endogenous nuclear antigens by electrotransfer of monoclonal antibodies in living cells.

Antibodies are valuable tools for functional studies in vitro, but their use in living cells remains challenging because they do not naturally cross the cell membrane. Here, we present a simple and highly efficient method for the intracytoplasmic delivery of any antibody into cultured cells. By following the fate of monoclonal antibodies that bind to nuclear antigens, it was possible to image endogenous targets and to show that inhibitory antibodies are able to induce cell growth suppression or cell death. Our electrotransfer system allowed the cancer cells we studied to be transduced without loss of viability and may have applications for a variety of intracellular immuno-interventions.

The use of fluorescent intrabodies to detect endogenous gankyrin in living cancer cells.

Expression of antibody fragments in mammalian cells (intrabodies) is used to probe the target protein or interfere with its biological function. We previously described the in vitro characterisation of a single-chain Fv (scFv) antibody fragment (F5) isolated from an intrabody library that binds to the oncoprotein gankyrin (GK) in solution. Here, we have isolated several other scFvs that interact with GK in the presence of F5 and tested whether they allow, when fused to fluorescent proteins, to detect by FRET endogenous GK in living cells. The binding of pairs of scFvs to GK was analysed by gel filtration and the ability of each scFv to mediate nuclear import/export of GK was determined. Binding between scFv-EGFP and RFP-labelled GK in living cells was detected by fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM). After co-transfection of two scFvs fused to EGFP and RFP, respectively, which form a tri-molecular complex with GK in vitro, FRET signal was measured. This system allowed us to observe that GK is monomeric and distributed throughout the cytoplasm and nucleus of several cancer cell lines. Our results show that pairs of fluorescently labelled intrabodies can be monitored by FLIM-FRET microscopy and that this technique allows the detection of lowly expressed endogenous proteins in single living cells.