Quantification of key odorants formed by autoxidation of arachidonic acid using isotope dilution assay.

Six odor-active compounds generated by autoxidation of arachidonic acid (AA) were quantified by isotope dilution assay (IDA), i.e., hexanal (1), 1-octen-3-one (2), (E,Z)-2,4-decadienal (3), (E,E)-2,4-decadienal (4), trans-4,5-epoxy-(E)-2-decenal (5), and (E,Z,Z)-2,4,7-tridecatrienal (6). Compound 1 was the most abundant odorant with about 700 mg/100 g autoxidized AA, which corresponds to 2.2 mol% yield. Based on the odor activity values (ratio of concentration to odor threshold), odorants 3 (fatty) and 5 (metallic) showed the highest sensory contribution followed by 1 (green), 2 (mushroom-like), 6 (egg white-like), and 4 (fatty). For the first time, reliable quantitative results are reported for odorants 1-6 in autoxidized AA, in particular odorant 6, which is a characteristic compound found in autoxidized AA. Synthesis of deuterated 6, required for IDA, is described in detail. The formation of odorants 1-6 by autoxidation of AA is discussed with respect to the quantitative data.

Identification of potent odorants formed by autoxidation of arachidonic acid: structure elucidation and synthesis of (E,Z,Z)-2,4,7-tridecatrienal.

The aroma composition of autoxidized arachidonic acid was characterized by aroma extract dilution analysis. The most potent odorant was trans-4,5-epoxy-(E)-2-decenal followed by 1-octen-3-one, (E,Z)-2,4-decadienal, (E,Z,Z)-2,4,7-tridecatrienal, (E,E)-2,4-decadienal, and hexanal. (E,Z,Z)-2,4,7-Tridecatrienal was unequivocally identified by mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data. The stereochemistry of its extended double-bond system was elucidated on the basis of NMR measurements. The target compound was synthesized in four steps starting with bromination of 2-octyn-1-ol, followed by copper-catalyzed coupling of the bromide with ethylmagnesium bromide and (E)-2-penten-4-yn-1-ol. Partial hydrogenation of the resulting C(13)-compound with triple bonds in the positions C-4 and C-7 gave rise to (E,Z,Z)-2,4,7-tridecatrien-1-ol, which was finally oxidized to the target compound. It exhibits a typical egg-white-like, marine-like odor at low concentrations, and an intense orange-citrus, animal-like odor at higher concentrations. Its odor threshold was estimated by gas chromatography-olfactometry to be 0.07 ng/L air, which is of the same order of magnitude as that reported for 1-octen-3-one and (E,E)-2,4-decadienal.

Metabolism of 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline in human hepatocytes: 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline-8-carboxylic acid is a major detoxification pathway catalyzed by cytochrome P450 1A2.

Metabolic pathways of the mutagen 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx) remain incompletely characterized in humans. In this study, the metabolism of MeIQx was investigated in primary human hepatocytes. Six metabolites were characterized by UV and mass spectroscopy. Novel metabolites were additionally characterized by 1H NMR spectroscopy. The carcinogenic metabolite, 2-(hydroxyamino)-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline, which is formed by cytochrome P450 1A2 (P450 1A2), was found to be transformed into the N(2)-glucuronide conjugate, N(2)-(beta-1-glucosiduronyl)-2-(hydroxyamino)-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline. The phase II conjugates N(2)-(3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxalin-2-yl)sulfamic acid and N(2)-(beta-1-glucosiduronyl)-2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline, as well as the 7-oxo derivatives of MeIQx and N-desmethyl-MeIQx, 2-amino-3,8-dimethyl-6-hydro-7H-imidazo[4,5-f]quinoxalin-7-one (7-oxo-MeIQx), and 2-amino-6-hydro-8-methyl-7H-imidazo[4,5-f]quinoxalin-7-one (N-desmethyl-7-oxo-MeIQx), thought to be formed exclusively by the intestinal flora, were also identified. A novel metabolite was characterized as 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline-8-carboxylic acid (IQx-8-COOH), and it was the predominant metabolite formed in hepatocytes exposed to MeIQx at levels approaching human exposure. IQx-8-COOH formation is catalyzed by P450 1A2. This metabolite is a detoxication product and does not induce umuC gene expression in Salmonella typhimurium strain NM2009. IQx-8-COOH is also the principal oxidation product of MeIQx excreted in human urine [Turesky, R., et al. (1998) Chem. Res. Toxicol. 11, 217-225]. Thus, P450 1A2 is involved in both the metabolic activation and detoxication of this procarcinogen in humans. Analogous metabolism experiments were conducted with hepatocytes of untreated rats and rats pretreated with the P450 inducer 3-methylcholanthrene. Unlike human hepatocytes, the rat cell preparations did not produce IQx-8-COOH but catalyzed the formation of 2-amino-3,8-dimethyl-5-hydroxyimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline as a major P450-mediated detoxication product. In conclusion, our results provide evidence of a novel MeIQx metabolism pathway in humans through P450 1A2-mediated C(8)-oxidation of MeIQx to form IQx-8-COOH. This biotransformation pathway has not been detected in experimental animal species. Considerable interspecies differences exist in the metabolism of MeIQx by P450s, which may affect the biological activity of this mutagen and must be considered when assessing human health risk.

Metabolism of ochratoxin A: absence of formation of genotoxic derivatives by human and rat enzymes.

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a potent renal carcinogen in male rats, although its mode of carcinogenicity is not known. The metabolism and covalent binding of OTA to DNA were investigated in vitro with cytochromes P450, glutathione S-transferases, prostaglandin H-synthase, and horseradish peroxidase. Incubation of OTA with rat or human liver microsomes fortified with NADPH resulted in formation of 4-(R)-hydroxyochratoxin A at low rates [10-25 pmol min(-1) (mg of protein)(-1)]. There was no evidence of OTA metabolism and glutathione conjugate formation with rat, mouse, or human kidney microsomes or postmitochondrial supernatants (S-9) [<5 pmol min(-1) (mg of protein)(-1)]. Recombinant human cytochromes P450 (P450) 1A1 and 3A4 formed 4-(R)-hydroxyochratoxin A at low rates [0.08 and 0.06 pmol min(-1) (pmol of P450)(-1), respectively]; no oxidation products of OTA were detected with recombinant human P450 1A2 or 2E1 or rat P450 1A2 or 2C11 [<0.02 pmol min(-1) (pmol of P450)(-1)]. Prostaglandin H-synthase produced small amounts of an apolar product [33 pmol min(-1) (mg of protein)(-1)], and OTA products were not formed with horseradish peroxidase. There was no evidence of DNA adduct formation when [(3)H]OTA was incubated with these enzyme systems in the presence of calf thymus DNA (<20 adducts/10(9) DNA bases); however, these enzymes catalyzed DNA adduct formation with the genotoxins aflatoxin B(1), 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline, benzo[a]pyrene, and pentachlorophenol. There was also no detectable [(3)H]OTA bound in vivo to kidney DNA of male Fischer-344 rats treated orally with [(3)H]OTA (1 mg/kg, 100 mCi/mmol, 24 h exposure, <2.7 adducts/10(9) DNA bases), based upon liquid scintillation counting. However, (32)P-postlabeling experiments did show evidence of DNA lesions with total adduct levels ranging from 31 to 71 adducts/10(9) DNA bases, while adducts in untreated rat kidney ranged from 6 to 24 adducts/10(9) DNA bases. These results do not support the premise that OTA or metabolically activated species covalently bind to DNA and suggest that the (32)P-postlabeled lesions are due to products derived from OTA-mediated cytotoxicity.

Exploring the discrimination power of the time domain for segmentation and characterization of active lesions in serial MR data.

This paper presents a new method for the automatic segmentation and characterization of object changes in time series of three-dimensional data sets. The technique was inspired by procedures developed for analysis of functional MRI data sets. After precise registration of serial volume data sets to 4-D data, we applied a time series analysis taking into account the characteristic time function of variable lesions. The images were preprocessed with a correction of image field inhomogeneities and a normalization of the brightness over the whole time series. Thus, static regions remain unchanged over time, whereas changes in tissue characteristics produce typical intensity variations in the voxel's time series. A set of features was derived from the time series, expressing probabilities for membership to the sought structures. These multiple sources of uncertain evidence were combined to a single evidence value using Dempster-Shafer's theory. The project was driven by the objective of improving the segmentation and characterization of white matter lesions in serial MR data of multiple sclerosis patients. Pharmaceutical research and patient follow-up requires efficient and robust methods with a high degree of automation. The new approach replaces conventional segmentation of series of 3-D data sets by a 1-D processing of the temporal change at each voxel in the 4-D image data set. The new method has been applied to a total of 11 time series from different patient studies, covering time resolutions of 12 and 24 data sets over a period of about 1 year. The results demonstrate that time evolution is a highly sensitive feature for detection of fluctuating structures.

Synthesis of trans-4,5-epoxy-(E)-2-decenal and its deuterated analog used for the development of a sensitive and selective quantification method based on isotope dilution assay with negative chemical ionization.

The volatile compound trans-4,5-epoxy-(E)-2-decenal (1) was synthesized in two steps with good overall yields. The newly developed method is based on trans-epoxidation of (E)-2-octenal with alkaline hydrogen peroxide followed by a Wittig-type chain elongation with the ylide formylmethylene triphenylphosphorane. For the synthesis of [4,5-2H2]-trans-4,5-epoxy-(E)-2-decenal (d-1), [2,3-2H2]-(E)-2-octenal was prepared by reduction of 2-octyn-1-ol with lithium aluminum deuteride and subsequent oxidation of [2,3-2H2]-(E)-2-octen-1-ol with manganese oxide. Compound d1 was used as internal standard for the quantification of 1 by isotope dilution assay. Among various mass spectrometry (MS) ionization techniques tested, negative chemical ionization with ammonia as reagent gas gave best results with respect to both sensitivity and selectivity. The detection limit was found to be at about 1 pg of the analyte introduced into the gas chromatography-MS system.

Synthesis of deuterated volatile lipid degradation products to be used as internal standards in isotope dilution assays. 1. Aldehydes.

The isotopically labeled compounds [5,6-(2)H(2)]hexanal (d-I), [2, 3-(2)H(2)]-(E)-2-nonenal (d-II), [3,4-(2)H(2)]-(E,E)-2,4-nonadienal (d-III), and [3,4-(2)H(2)]-(E,E)-2,4-decadienal (d-IV) were prepared in good yields using new or improved synthesis procedures. Labeling position, chemical purity, and isotopic distribution of the compounds were characterized by various MS and NMR techniques. These molecules are used as internal standards in quantification experiments based on isotope dilution assay. Synthesis of d-I, d-III, and d-IV has not yet been reported in the literature.

Synthesis of deuterated volatile lipid degradation products to be used as internal standards in isotope dilution assays. 2. Vinyl ketones.

The isotopically labeled compounds [5,6-(2)H(2)]-(Z)-1, 5-octadien-3-one (d-I) and [1-(2)H(1;2),2-(2)H(1;1)]-1-octen-3-one (d-II), as well as the unlabeled reference compound (Z)-1, 5-octadien-3-one (I) were prepared by improved synthesis procedures. Labeling position, chemical purity, and isotopic distribution of the compounds were characterized by various MS and NMR techniques. These molecules are used as internal standards in quantification experiments based on isotope dilution assay. The newly prepared compound d-II was synthesized in a simple two-step procedure, and formation of the main isotopomers was studied in model systems.

Metabolism of the food-borne mutagen 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline in humans.

The metabolism of 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx) was investigated in five human volunteers given a dietary equivalent of 14C-labeled MeIQx. The amount of the dose excreted in urine ranged from 20.2% to 58.6%, with unmetabolized MeIQx accounting for 0.7-2.8% of the dose. Five principal metabolites were detected in urine, and four of the derivatives were characterized by on-line UV spectroscopy and by HPLC-MS following immunoaffinity chromatography. Two metabolites were identified as the phase II conjugates N2-(3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxalin-2-yl)sulfamic acid (MeIQx-N2-SO3(-)) and N2-(beta-1-glucosiduronyl)-2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f ]quinoxaline (MeIQx-N2-Gl). Two other metabolites were the cytochrome P450-mediated (P450) oxidation products 2-amino-8-(hydroxymethyl)-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (8-CH2OH-MeIQx), and N2-(beta-1-glucosiduronyl)-N-hydroxy-2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidaz o[4,5-f]quinoxaline (NOH-MeIQx-N2-Gl). The latter product is a conjugate of the genotoxic metabolite 2-(hydroxyamino)-3,8-dimethylimidazo-[4,5-f]quinoxaline (NHOH-MeIQx). A large interindividual variation was observed in the metabolism and disposition of MeIQx; these four metabolites and unchanged MeIQx combined accounted for 6.3-26.7% of the total dose. The remaining principal metabolite found in all subjects accounted for 7.6-28% of the dose. It has not been previously identified in rodents or nonhuman primates, and its structure remains unknown. P450-mediated ring oxidation of MeIQx at the C-5 position, a major pathway of detoxication in rodents, was not detected in humans. Both 8-CH2OH-MeIQx formation and NHOH-MeIQx formation are catalyzed by P450 1A2 and may be useful biomarkers of P450 1A2 activity in humans. The levels of NHOH-MeIQx-N2-Gl found in human urine ranged from 1.4% to 10.0% of the dose, which is significantly higher than that formed in rodents and nonhuman primates undergoing cancer bioassays. Thus, bioactivation of MeIQx by P450-mediated N-oxidation is extensive in humans.

Oxidation of caffeine and related methylxanthines in ascorbate and polyphenol-driven Fenton-type oxidations.

Caffeine and related methylxanthines were subjected to free radical mediated oxidation by incubation with Fe(3+)-EDTA/ascorbate and Fe(3+)-EDTA/polyphenolics. The reaction mixtures were analysed by reverse-phase HPLC, revealing the corresponding C-8 hydroxylated analogues as the major products of hydroxyl radical mediated attack. Further oxidation products of caffeine, analysed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), were the N1-, N3- and N7-demethylated methylxanthine analogues theobromine, paraxanthine and theophylline, respectively. Isolable amounts of the imidazole ring operated 6-amino-5-(N-formylmethyl-amino)-1,3-dimethyl-uracil (1,3,7-DAU) derivative were also detected, which was characterised by 1H NMR and mass spectroscopy. The identified products indicate that the pertinent chemical reactions, i.e. C-8 hydroxylation, demethylations, and C8-N9 bond scission, are comparable to the primary metabolic pathways of caffeine in humans. The influence of pH, transition metals, hydrogen peroxide, free radical scavengers and metal chelators on caffeine oxidation was studied. This report illustrates that natural food-borne reactants can aid in identifying specific chemical markers of free radical induced damage. Furthermore, potentially anti-and pro-oxidative reactions can be elucidated which may be important in assessing the impact of nutrient additives and supplements on the shelf life and stability of foods and beverages.

Metabolism of the food-derived carcinogen 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx) in nonhuman primates.

The metabolism and disposition of the food mutagen and rodent carcinogen 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline was investigated in cynomolgus monkeys. Monkeys were administered a single dose of radiolabeled [14C]MeIQx (2.2 or 50 mumol/kg). Peak blood levels of radioactivity were observed within 1-3 h after dosing and declined rapidly thereafter. By 72 h after dosing, approximately 50% and 70% of the 2.2 mumol/kg, and 50 mumol/kg dose, respectively, was excreted in the urine. Approximately 15-20% of either dose was recovered in the feces. Eight metabolites and the parent compound were detected in urine by HPLC. The parent compound accounted for approximately 15-25% of the dose excreted in the urine. Seven MeIQx urinary metabolites were identified. Five metabolites were identical to MeIQx metabolites previously found in rats: MeIQx-N2-glucuronide, MeIQx-N2-sulfamate, MeIQx-5-sulfate, MeIQx-5-O-glucuronide, and 8-CH2OH-MeIQx-5-sulfate. Cynomolgus monkeys, however, metabolized MeIQx to a novel glucuronide conjugate of MeIQx not found in rats. Based upon mass spectroscopy and proton NMR analyses, the structure of this metabolite was consistent with an N1-glucuronide of MeIQx. This metabolite was the major urinary metabolite found in monkeys, accounting for 31-37% of the dose excreted in the urine over a 24 h period. One additional metabolite identified in urine and feces of MeIQx treated cynomolgus monkeys, that has not been found previously in any other animal model, was 7-oxo-MeIQx, a likely enteric bacterial metabolite of MeIQx. 7-Oxo-MeIQx accounted for 20-25% of the dose of MeIQx found in the urine and was the major fecal metabolite. The N2-glucuronide conjugate of the carcinogenic metabolite 2-hydroxyamino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (NHOH-MeIQx) was not detected in urine or bile of monkeys, even after 10 daily doses of MeIQx (100 mumol/kg) were given. The results indicate that MeIQx is metabolically processed in monkeys via multiple pathways of detoxification. However, MeIQx is poorly metabolically activated via cytochrome P450 mediated N-oxidation. The in vivo metabolism of MeIQx in cynomolgus monkeys is different from that of the structurally related food-derived mutagen 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ), which is readily metabolically activated by this species and in contrast to MeIQx, has been shown to be a powerful hepatic carcinogen.

Metabolism of heterocyclic aromatic amines and strategies of human biomonitoring.

The metabolism of 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ) and 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx), two carcinogenic heterocyclic aromatic amines (HCAs) formed in cooked meats and fish, was studied in animal models and in vitro with human tissues to develop strategies for human biomonitoring. Both IQ and MeIQx are rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract of rodents and transformed into a number of products which are excreted in urine and feces. Detoxification occurs via cytochrome P450 mediated ring hydroxylation at the C-5 position followed by conjugation to sulfuric or beta-glucuronic acid. Other routes of detoxification include N2-glucuronidation and the uncommon pathway of sulfamate formation; N2-acetylation, however, appears to be a minor pathway. Metabolic activation by N-oxidation was demonstrated through formation of the metastable N2-glucuronide conjugate of the mutagenic N-hydroxy metabolites. These conjugates are excreted preferentially in urine rather than bile. Many of these metabolic pathways also exist in nonhuman primates. The binding of IQ and MeIQx to blood proteins is low and thus, human biomonitoring through protein adducts may be difficult. Human liver can metabolically activate HCAs by cytochrome P450 mediated N-oxidation and can also catalyze the detoxification of IQ and MeIQx through sulfamate formation; however, HCAs appear to be poor substrates for N-acetyltransferase. Preliminary data have shown that humans excrete both the N2-sulfamate and N2-glucuronide of MeIQx in urine following consumption of cooked meat. Thus, rodents, nonhuman primates and humans appear to have several common routes of HCA biotransformation.

Synthesis of multiply-labeled [15N3,13C1]-8-oxo-substituted purine bases and their corresponding 2'-deoxynucleosides.

Stable isotope-labeled analogues of oxidatively modified purine bases are required as internal standards for accurate quantitation of free radical induced damage in DNA using the isotope-dilution GC/MS technique. For this reason, we report on a facile and expedient method to synthesize the isotope-labeled oxidized DNA bases 8-oxoguanine (8-oxo-Gua, 5a) and 8-oxo-adenine (8-oxo-Ade, 5b). Both routes have in common the introduction of two exocyclic 15N isotopes simultaneously by halogen displacement of chlorine-substituted pyrimidines with [15N]-benzylamine. Debenzylation is achieved by either catalytic hydrogenation or treatment with aluminium chloride in benzene. An additional isotope is incorporated by nitrosation with 15N-labeled sodium nitrite. Cyclocondensation of the triamines with 13C-labeled urea then affords 5a and 5b in overall yields of 34% and 27%, respectively, and each with four isotope labels and at least 99 atom % excess. A further one-step enzyme catalyzed coupling of the C8 adducted purines with 2'-deoxyribose furnishes the isotope-labeled 2'-deoxynucleosides 2'-deoxy-7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanosine (8-oxo-dGuo) and 2'-deoxy-7,8-dihydro-8-oxoadenosine (8-oxo-dAdo).

Dicranin, an antimicrobial and 15-lipoxygenase inhibitor from the moss Dicranum scoparium.

Extracts of nine mosses, collected in Switzerland, were screened for antimicrobial, antioxidative, and 15-lipoxygenase (15-lpo) inhibitory activities. The CH2Cl2 extract of Dicranum scoparium was found to possess pronounced antimicrobial activity against Bacillus cereus, Bacillus stearothermophilus, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli. In addition, inhibition of soybean 15-lpo occurred at very low concentration. Phytochemical investigation of this extract afforded Z,Z,Z-octadeca-6-yne-9,12,15-trienoic acid [1] by a combination of chromatographic techniques. This compound, named dicranin [1], was found to be responsible for most of the biological activity. The strongest antimicrobial effect was observed against Streptococcus faecalis (disc diffusion assay). In contrast to the CH2Cl2 extract of D. scoparium, dicranin was inactive against E. coli. Dicranin was identified by ir, ms, and nmr spectroscopy. A 2D INADEQUATE experiment confirmed the structure and yielded the assignment of all 13C-nmr signals.

Metabolism of the food mutagen 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline in nonhuman primates undergoing carcinogen bioassay.

2-Amino-3-methylimidazo[4.5-f]quinoline (IQ) is a potent bacterial mutagen and rodent carcinogen which also produces hepatocellular carcinoma in monkeys. The metabolism and disposition of this procarcinogen were investigated in monkeys undergoing carcinogen bioassay and in monkeys given an acute dose of IQ. Analysis of urine, feces, and bile revealed that IQ was extensively metabolized. A number of metabolites in urine were purified by high-performance liquid chromatography and characterized by 1H NMR and mass spectroscopy. Metabolites resulted from cytochrome P450-mediated ring oxidation at the C-5 position or N-demethylation. These metabolites could be further transformed by conjugation to sulfate or beta-glucuronic acid. Glucuronidation and sulfamate formation at the exocyclic amine group were other major routes of metabolism. Enteric bacteria also contributed to IQ biotransformation by forming the 7-oxo derivatives of IQ and N-demethyl-IQ. The metastable N2-glucuronide conjugate of the carcinogenic metabolite, 2-(hydroxyamino)-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline, was found in urine. This indicates that metabolic activation through cytochrome P450-mediated N-oxidation occurs in vivo and that glucuronidation is a means of transport of the carcinogenic metabolite to extrahepatic tissues.

Characterization of DNA adducts formed in vitro by reaction of N-hydroxy-2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline and N-hydroxy-2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline at the C-8 and N2 atoms of guanine.

The covalent binding of the carcinogenic N-hydroxy metabolites of 2-amino-3-methylimidazo-[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ) and 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx) to deoxynucleosides and DNA was investigated in vitro. Two major adducts were formed by the reaction of the N-acetoxy derivatives of IQ and MeIQx with deoxyguanosine (dG); however, no adducts were formed with deoxycytidine, deoxyadenosine, or thymidine. From proton NMR and mass spectroscopic characterization the adducts were identified as 5-(deoxyguanosin-N2-yl)-2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (dG-N2-IQ),N-(deoxyguanosin-8-yl)-2-amino-3-methylimidazo-[4,5-f]q uinoline (dG-C8-IQ), 5-(deoxyguanosin-N2-yl)-2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]qu inoxaline (dG-N2-MeIQx), and N-(deoxyguanosin-8-yl)-2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]qui noxaline (dG-C8-MeIQx). The level of dG-C8 adducts was approximately 8-10 times greater than the amount of dG-N2 adducts formed from the reaction of dG with the N-acetoxy derivatives of IQ and MeIQx. The C-8-substituted dG adduct was also the major adduct formed from reactions of DNA with N-acetoxy-IQ and N-acetoxy-MeIQx. Approximately 60-80% of the bound carcinogens were recovered from DNA as dG-C8 adducts upon enzymatic digestion. The dG-N2 adducts also were detected and accounted for approximately 4% of the bound IQ and 10% of the bound MeIQx. These results suggest that the relative contributions of the nitrenium and carbenium ion resonance forms as well as DNA macromolecular structure are major determinants for DNA adduct substitution sites. Investigations on adduct conformation of 1H NMR spectroscopy revealed that the anti form is preferred for the dG-N2 adducts of IQ and MeIQx, while the syn form is preferred for the dG-C8 adducts. The possible role of these adducts in the initiation of carcinogenesis is discussed.

The contribution of N-oxidation to the metabolism of the food-borne carcinogen 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline in rat hepatocytes.

The metabolism of 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline, a potent bacterial mutagen and rodent carcinogen formed in low quantities in cooked meat and fish, was studied in freshly isolated rat hepatocytes. Ten metabolites were characterized by various spectroscopic methods. Sulfamate formation was the major route of metabolism in hepatocytes of untreated rats whereas ring-hydroxylated sulfuric and glucuronic acid conjugates were major metabolites in animals pretreated with the enzyme inducers Aroclor-1254, beta-naphthoflavone, or isosafrole. The formation of a mutagenic metabolite through N-oxidation, 2-(hydroxyamino)-3,8- dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (HNOH-MeIQx), was an important route of metabolism in hepatocytes of pretreated animals. Its metastable derivative, the N-hydroxy-N-glucuronide, also was detected. The nitro derivative of MeIQx, a direct-acting bacterial mutagen, was readily detoxified by glutathione transferase, forming a conjugate where the thiol group of glutathione displaced the nitro moiety. Low but detectable levels of N-acetyltransferase activity were observed for MeIQx and sulfamethazine in hepatocytes. HNOH-MeIQx and 4-(hydroxyamino)biphenyl (HNOH-ABP), a recognized human carcinogen, displayed acetyl coenzyme A dependent DNA binding in hepatic cytosol assays. Sulfamethazine decreased the DNA binding of HNOH-MeIQx in hepatocytes, suggesting a competition for acetyltransferase. However, the binding of HNOH-MeIQx to DNA in hepatocytes was independent of sulfotransferase since inhibitors of this enzyme, 2,6-dichloro-4-nitrophenol (DCNP) and pentachlorophenol (PCP), did not diminish DNA binding. In contrast, binding of HNOH-ABP to DNA was not decreased by sulfamethazine, but binding was diminished by both sulfotransferase inhibitors. From these inhibition experiments it appears that a major route of binding of HNOH-MeIQx to DNA in hepatocytes is mediated through O-acetyltransferase while a significant portion of HNOH-ABP bound to DNA is catalyzed by sulfotransferase.

Ionization of tyrosine and lysine residues in native and modified horse cytochrome c.

1H-n.m.r. and 13C-n.m.r. spectroscopy of horse cytochrome c and 1H-n.m.r. spectroscopy of the lysine-modified proteins N epsilon-acetimidyl-, N epsilon-amidino-, N epsilon-trifluoroacetyl- and N epsilon-maleyl-cytochrome c have shown that, although the lysine modifications do not greatly perturb the protein structure at pH7 and 27 degrees C, at higher temperature or at alkaline pH some parts of the structure are markedly perturbed. At pH7 and 27 degrees C the region of the protein about Ile-57 is affected in all the modified proteins, though not all to the same degree. N epsilon-Maleylation most seriously affects the protein structure, and the fully maleylated protein is readily unfolded. At 27 degrees C all four of the tyrosine residues of native horse cytochrome c have pKa values above 11, but in N epsilon-acetimidyl-cytochrome c the pKa of one tyrosine residue is 10.2.

The 13C-NMR spectra of hyaluronate and chondroitin sulphates. Further evidence on an alkali-induced conformation change.

Complete assignments are given for the 13C NMR spectra of hyaluronate and chondroitin in deuterium oxide solution at 50.32 MHz. The assignments published earlier for chondroitin 4-sulphate and chondroitin 6-sulphate were largely confirmed but were found to need some revision in detail. Our conclusions for hyaluronate and the chondroitin sulphates were confirmed by off-resonance experiments based on the proton NMR assignments. The spectra for hyaluronate show line narrowing and chemical shift changes from neutral to alkaline solution which are consistent with, and clearer than, the effects reported earlier for the proton spectra. As before no such changes occur for the chondroitin sulphates. The suggested interpretation is in terms of a conformation change for hyaluronate which originates mainly in altered interaction energies across the 1 leads to 3 linkage with the results that motional freedom is enhanced above that of the parent hyaluronate and even above the chondroitin sulphates. This, and the evidence from a temperature effect, suggests that an additional potential energy minimum is made favourable in alkali so that the overall amplitudes of the bond oscillations are increased.