Phylogeography of the asian elephant (Elephas maximus) based on mitochondrial DNA.

Populations of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) have been reduced in size and become highly fragmented during the past 3,000 to 4,000 years. Historical records reveal elephant dispersal by humans via trade and war. How have these anthropogenic impacts affected genetic variation and structure of Asian elephant populations? We sequenced mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to assay genetic variation and phylogeography across much of the Asian elephant's range. Initially we compare cytochrome b sequences (cyt b) between nine Asian and five African elephants and use the fossil-based age of their separation (approximately 5 million years ago) to obtain a rate of about 0.013 (95% CI = 0.011-0.018) corrected sequence divergence per million years. We also assess variation in part of the mtDNA control region (CR) and adjacent tRNA genes in 57 Asian elephants from seven countries (Sri Lanka, India, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia). Asian elephants have typical levels of mtDNA variation, and coalescence analyses suggest their populations were growing in the late Pleistocene. Reconstructed phylogenies reveal two major clades (A and B) differing on average by HKY85/gamma-corrected distances of 0.020 for cyt b and 0.050 for the CR segment (corresponding to a coalescence time based on our cyt b rate of approximately 1.2 million years). Individuals of both major clades exist in all locations but Indonesia and Malaysia. Most elephants from Malaysia and all from Indonesia are in well-supported, basal clades within clade A. thus supporting their status as evolutionarily significant units (ESUs). The proportion of clade A individuals decreases to the north, which could result from retention and subsequent loss of ancient lineages in long-term stable populations or, perhaps more likely, via recent mixing of two expanding populations that were isolated in the mid-Pleistocene. The distribution of clade A individuals appears to have been impacted by human trade in elephants among Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and India, and the subspecies and ESU statuses of Sri Lankan elephants are not supported by molecular data.

Use of urinary hormone assays for evaluating endocrine patterns associated with the long-day breeding season in Eld's deer (Cervus eldi).

Reproductive seasonality and pregnancy in the endangered brow-antlered or Eld's deer (Cervus eldi) were studied by measuring urinary estrone conjugates (EC) and pregnanediol-3 alpha-glucuronide (PdG) profiles in voided urine. Based on the excretion of PdG, female Eld's deer were seasonally polyestrous, spontaneous ovulators with regular cyclic activity beginning in January to March and ending in August to October. The overall estrous cycle averaged 21.5 +/- 2.1 days (+/- SEM, n = 65); however, 2 of 13 does consistently produced prolonged cycles (30.1 +/- 4.4 days, n = 14). Behavioral estrus (approximately 12-24 h duration) was observed in 42 of 65 cycles and always occurred when PdG excretion was at nadir levels. In two does that were serially bled, preovulatory plasma LH peaks occurred coincident with estrus, and progesterone secretion paralleled PdG excretion. Mean gestation duration (n = 10) was 33.5 +/- 0.4 wk with PdG concentrations increasing markedly during pregnancy (especially the last 25 wk) before an abrupt decline coincided with parturition. Mean EC excretion remained low during much of gestation; however, significant increases in this metabolite were observed, particularly during the 4 wk immediately preceding parturition. The results are the first to demonstrate the utility of atraumatic urinary hormone monitoring for studying the endocrinology of cervids. Excreted urinary PdG accurately reflects circannual fluctuations in cyclic ovarian activity, and longitudinal increases in this metabolite are highly indicative of pregnancy. Cyclic ovarian activity cannot be clearly monitored by urinary EC concentrations, although this metabolite can be used in conjunction with elevated PdG levels to confirm pregnancy and perhaps estimate the onset of impending parturition.