Phosphorus in the British household food supply.

The intake of phosphorus in Britain was calculated for 1975 by applying the values for phosphorus in foods from the 4th edition of McCance and Widdowson's 'The composition of foods' to the average household food purchases recorded in the National Food Survey (NFS). A similar exercise was carried out for 1982, but using many updated values for the phosphorus content of foods. In 1975 the average household intake of phosphorus was 1310 mg per person per day while by 1982 it had declined to 1223 mg per person per day. The calcium: phosphorus ratio was 1 : 1.3 in both years. These intakes are above the US recommendation for adults but well below the maximum tolerable daily intakes for phosphorus.

Folic acid content of the diet in various types of British household.

The total folic acid content of household diets in Britain has been derived from National Food Survey records for 1979, 1980 and 1981, and was found to average 210-213 micrograms/person/day. There were only small regional differences, with the South East of England and East Anglia having higher and Scotland having lower intakes than the average. Income differences were more marked, with households depending on unearned income having the highest intakes. The largest differences were found between households of different compositions groups: households without children obtained between 215 and 257 micrograms/person/day but those containing six or more people averaged only between 168 and 194 micrograms/person/day.

The nutritional composition of British bread: London area study.

Samples of white and brown bread, both sliced and unsliced, and of wheatgerm breads and wholemeal bread were purchased in London and analysed for a wide range of nutrients. Available carbohydrate, dietary fibre, fatty acids, riboflavin, vitamin B6, and iodine were determined in bulked samples of each type of bread and, in addition, every loaf was analysed for moisture, fat, protein, phosphorus, chloride, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, thiamin, nicotinic acid, and free and total folic acid, in order to provide an estimate the variability within each kind of bread. Virtually all the constituents that were measured in the individual loaves showed inter-loaf variation--particularly moisture contents and the levels of calcium, copper and folic acid. Unsliced loaves were more variable than sliced loaves but when expressed on a dry matter basis there were no significant differences in the nutrient levels in sliced and unsliced breads. Wheatgerm breads were relatively more homogenous products but wholemeal loaves were very unhomogenous reflecting the difficulty of accurately identifying unwrapped wholemeal loaves in retail outlets. Some differences from previously published values for all breads were found for dietary fibre, iron, thiamin and vitamin B6. Experience of sampling at retail outlets and analysis provided by this study will be integrated into the design of a planned study of breads throughout Britain.

Determination of vitamin D and retinoid activity in eggs by HPLC.

Reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (HLPC) was used to estimate the vitamin D3 content of battery and free range eggs. At the same time another HPLC technique was used to estimate the retinol activity in the battery eggs derived from the separate determination of all-trans retinol, 13-cis retinol and retinaldehyde concentrations. There was some variation in both the vitamin D3 and retinol activity in eggs over the laying year but no significance could be drawn from this. Vitamin D3 levels in 12 monthly samples each of 120 battery eggs averaged 1.2 micrograms/100 g edible portion, while the levels in each of four quarterly samples of 36 free range eggs from the London and Newcastle areas averaged 1.4 and 0.8 micrograms/100 g respectively. These differences between battery and free range eggs were not statistically significant. The average retinol activity in four samples of 120 battery eggs was calculated to be 190 micrograms/100 g, and the components of this activity were identified as 132 micrograms all-trans retinol and 21 micrograms of retinaldehyde, as well as 53 micrograms 13-cis retinol which has not previously been reported in hens' eggs.

Trace nutrients. 4. Iodine in British food.

1. The amounts of iodine in nationally representative samples of prepared and cooked groups of foods and in a wide variety of individual foods and food products were determined colorimetrically. The amounts of erythrosine, a red food colour containing 577 mg I/g were also determined in selected foods and diets by high-performance liquid chromatography. 2. The average British diet was calculated to provide 323 micrograms I/d but only 255 micrograms if two fruit samples containing large amounts of glacé cherries were discounted. Of the total, 92 micrograms was derived from liquid milk. Meat and meat products provided 36 micrograms and cereal products 31 micrograms, but fresh fruits and sugars, vegetables and beverages provided little I. Fish and fish products, though rich in I, contributed only 5% to the total intake. 3. Milk was the most variable as well as the most important individual source of I. Summer milk samples contained 70 micrograms/kg and winter milk 370 micrograms/kg on average. Milk products, including butter and cheese, and eggs were also rich in I. 4. Some processed foods contained erythrosine, particularly glacé cherries and some pink or red confectionery items, biscuits, cherry cake, canned strawberries and luncheon meat. However, none of these are major foods in the average household diet and erythrosine would therefore contribute little more than 10 micrograms I/d to most diets. 5. The average daily intake of I was lower than in similar similar studies in the USA, but was twice the provisional UK recommended intake. This study provides no evidence that I intakes in the UK could be too low or too high for health.U

Maternal nutrition, prolonged lactation and birth spacing in Ethiopia.

PIP: Data from 375 Ethiopian mothers show lactations of between 25 and 30 months in the majority, very prolonged even by African standards. Maternal nutritional status, as shown by body weights, was low due to very low food energy intakes. With frequent suckling already raising prolactin levels, these very low energy intakes may also result in yet more prolactin secretion. New pregnancies are delayed and birth intervals extended beyond normal African standards by all these factors.^ieng

Endemic malaria, malnutrition and child deaths.

PIP: Past failures of nutrition programs could lead to disillusionment among governments with nutritionists unless realistic targets are adopted. High child death rates are due to both infection and malnutrition, both causes of high general fertility rates. A nutrition program in Zambia examined malarial infections and undernutrition as causes of death. Where malnutrition was diagnosed in youngest children, significantly more siblings had died. However, positive malaria in the youngest child was associated with most sibling deaths; rates being always higher among children where it was detected. A reduction in malaria transmission is proposed as a more effective policy than that of increasing general food production. This would reduce death rates and population growth and increase the availability of family resources for each child.^ieng

Household food wastage in Britain.

1. The total food and drink available for human consumption in the United Kingdom would provide approximately 13 MJ (3100 kcal)/person per d, while the energy intake recommended for the population is approximately 9.6 MJ (2300 kcal)/person per d. A proportion of this substantial difference must be due to wastage in the home as well as in catering establishments and during the storage, distribution and processing of food. 2. As part of a general investigation of this problem, a representative sample of 100 British households was asked to collect all the potentially-edible food wasted in their homes during 1 week, and to keep a record of the food, other than commercial pet food, which they gave to pets and wild birds. A total of 672 households co-operated fully, 338 in summer and 334 in winter. Each food sample received was weighed, and its energy content was determined calorimetrically. 3. Significantly more waste food was collected in summer than in winter, equivalent to 9.3 MJ (2220 kcal)/household per week and 7.1 MJ (1700 kcal)/household per week respectively. In terms of energy, cereals, fat and meat wastage predominated, while in terms of weight, milk was more important and fat less so. 4. Considerable quantities of otherwise edible food were also given to pets and birds, accounting on average for a further 2.4 MJ (570 kcal) and 3.0 MJ (710 kcal)/household per week in summer and winter respectively. The energy content of all food wasted in the home therefore averaged 11.7 MJ (2790 kcal)/household per week in summer and 10.1 MJ (2410 kcal)/households per week in winter, equivalent to 0.6 MJ (150 kcal) and 0.5 MJ (130 kcal)/person per d respectively. This is less than one-quarter of the gap between food supplies and the amount of food thought to be eaten in the UK. 5. Food wastage was significantly influenced by the composition of the family, with adults wasting more in absolute terms than children, and larger households wasting less per person than smaller households. However, with few exceptions, neither income nor geographical region significantly affected the total amount of food wasted in the home. 6. When assessed against the expected usage of food in the home, wastage accounted on average for 6.5% of the energy intake in summer and 5.4% in winter.

Trace nutrients. 2. Manganese in British food.

1. The amount of manganese in nationally-representative samples of prepared and cooked groups of foods, and in a wide variety of individual foods, was determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy. 2. The average British diet was calculated to provide 4.6 mg Mn/d of which half was derived from tea and other beverages, 30% from cereals, and 15% from vegetables and fruit. Animal products provided little Mn. 3. Individual foods other than tea which were particularly rich in Mn in Britain were unrefined and partially-refined cereals, and some spices and herbs. Some vegetables and fruit, coffee, wine, chocolate and brown sugar also contained significant amounts of Mn.

Social factors, nutrition and child mortality in a rural subsistance economy.

PIP: Data from the Zambia National Nutrition Status Survey was used to identify socioeconomic, health, and nutritional factors associated with child mortality among rural residents. In each sample village, all children, who were both under the age of 5 and the youngest child in the family, were given physical examinations and their mothers were interviewed about the socioeconomic characteristics of the family. Mothers were also asked to provide information on the number of live births they had and on the number of children they had who died. Physical disorders, revealed in the physical examinations, were analyzed in regard to their relationship to sibling death rates, and the socioeconomic characteristics of the family were analyzed in regard to their relationship to the child deaths reported by the mothers. Findings were 1) high sibling death rates were positively associated with the presence of malaria and with the presence of malnutrition in the youngest child in the family; 2) the role of malaria in sibling deaths was greater than the role of malnutrition; 3) social factors associated with high child deaths were parental residence in tribal areas, high maternal parity, and low parental educational attainment; 4) subsistence farm families lost 26.0% of their children compared to other occupational groups which lost an average of 20.9% of their children; 5) polygamously married women lost 28.7% of their children compared to monogamously married women. These findings will be used to help formulate policies aimed at reducing the high child mortality rates in rural Zambia. Only after this rate is reduced will rural residents be receptive to family planning.^ieng