CD44 promotes multi-drug resistance by protecting P-glycoprotein from FBXO21-mediated ubiquitination.

Here we demonstrate that a ubiquitin E3-ligase, FBXO21, targets the multidrug resistance transporter, ABCB1, also known as P-glycoprotein (P-gp), for proteasomal degradation. We also show that the Ser291-phosphorylated form of the multifunctional protein and stem cell marker, CD44, inhibits FBXO21-directed degradation of P-gp. Thus, CD44 increases P-gp mediated drug resistance and represents a potential therapeutic target in P-gp-positive cells.

Identification of function for CD44 intracytoplasmic domain (CD44-ICD): modulation of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) transcription via novel promoter response element.

CD44 is a multifunctional cell receptor that conveys a cancer phenotype, regulates macrophage inflammatory gene expression and vascular gene activation in proatherogenic environments, and is also a marker of many cancer stem cells. CD44 undergoes sequential proteolytic cleavages that produce an intracytoplasmic domain called CD44-ICD. However, the role of CD44-ICD in cell function is unknown. We take a major step toward the elucidation of the CD44-ICD function by using a CD44-ICD-specific antibody, a modification of a ChIP assay to detect small molecules, and extensive computational analysis. We show that CD44-ICD translocates into the nucleus, where it then binds to a novel DNA consensus sequence in the promoter region of the MMP-9 gene to regulate its expression. We also show that the expression of many other genes that contain this novel response element in their promoters is up- or down-regulated by CD44-ICD. Furthermore, hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (Hif1α)-responsive genes also have the CD44-ICD consensus sequence and respond to CD44-ICD induction under normoxic conditions and therefore independent of Hif1α expression. Additionally, CD44-ICD early responsive genes encode for critical enzymes in the glycolytic pathway, revealing how CD44 could be a gatekeeper of the Warburg effect (aerobic glycolysis) in cancer cells and possibly cancer stem cells. The link of CD44 to metabolism is novel and opens a new area of research not previously considered, particularly in the study of obesity and cancer. In summary, our results finally give a function to the CD44-ICD and will accelerate the study of the regulation of many CD44-dependent genes.

Crucial roles of Sp1 and epigenetic modifications in the regulation of the CLDN4 promoter in ovarian cancer cells.

Claudins form a large family of tight junction proteins that have essential roles in the control of paracellular ion flux and the maintenance of cell polarity. Many studies have shown that several claudin family members are abnormally expressed in various cancers. In particular, CLDN4 (encoding claudin-4) is overexpressed in ovarian cancer. However, although CLDN4 overexpression is well established, the mechanisms responsible for this abnormal regulation remain unknown. In the present study, we delineate a small region of the CLDN4 promoter critical for its expression. This region contains two Sp1 sites, both of which are required for promoter activity. However, because of the ubiquitous expression of Sp1, these sites, although necessary, are not sufficient to explain the patterns of gene expression of CLDN4 in various ovarian tissues. We show that the CLDN4 promoter is further controlled by epigenetic modifications of the Sp1-containing critical promoter region. Cells that overexpress CLDN4 exhibit low DNA methylation and high histone H3 acetylation of the critical CLDN4 promoter region, and the reverse is observed in cells that do not express CLDN4. Moreover, the CLDN4-negative cells can be induced to express CLDN4 through treatment with demethylating and/or acetylating agents. Because CLDN4 is elevated in a large fraction of ovarian cancer, the mechanism leading to deregulation may represent a general pathway in ovarian tumorigenesis and may lead to novel strategies for therapy and an overall better understanding of the biology of this disease.

Modulation of specific protein expression levels by PTEN: identification of AKAP121, DHFR, G3BP, Rap1, and RCC1 as potential targets of PTEN.

The tumor suppressor PTEN is mutated in a high percentage of human cancers, and is implicated in pathways regulating cell growth, proliferation, survival, and migration. Despite significant advances, our understanding of its mechanisms of action remains incomplete. We have used a high-throughput proteomic immunoblotting approach to identify proteins whose expression levels are modulated by PTEN. Out of over 800 proteins screened, 22 proteins showed significant changes in expression. Five proteins that exhibited two-fold or greater changes in expression level were further characterized. AKAP121 and G3BP expression was reduced, while dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), Rap1 and RCC1 expression was elevated in response to PTEN expression in a PTEN-null T-cell leukemia line. The phosphatase activity of PTEN was required for these effects. However, direct inhibition of PI-3 Kinase could mimic PTEN in modulating expression of DHFR, G3BP, Rap1 and RCC1, but not AKAP121. Real-time PCR showed that the effects of PTEN were primarily post-transcriptional, and would not have been revealed by mRNA-based screens. We conclude from these data that PTEN can modulate the expression level of a number of different proteins. The identified proteins have the potential to serve as previously unrecognized effectors of PTEN, and suggest the existence of additional complexity in the modes by which PTEN can regulate cellular biology.

Molecular mechanisms of platinum resistance: still searching for the Achilles' heel.

The platinum compounds cisplatin and carboplatin are commonly used in cancer chemotherapy. However, tumors frequently develop resistance to these compounds, significantly decreasing their usefulness in the clinic. In the past few years, basic research has unraveled novel and unexpected mechanisms for the development of platinum resistance. For example, it has been reported that MUC1 expression and particularly the localization of its C-terminal subunit to the mitochondria may affect cisplatin resistance. Another recent finding suggests that cisplatin damage may activate DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) to initiate a death signal that can be transmitted to neighboring cells through gap junctions, adding to a growing belief that the interactions of cancer cells with their surroundings may be important to the outcome of chemotherapy. While most clinical efforts have focused on identifying alternative regimens for drug-resistant cancer, it might be possible to exploit our knowledge of the mechanism of platinum resistance to specifically reverse resistance and increase platinum efficacy. The strategy of drug resistance reversal therapy (DRRT) may have significant impact on our approaches to the treatment and management of drug-resistant tumors.

Characterization of novel human ovarian cancer-specific transcripts (HOSTs) identified by serial analysis of gene expression.

A better understanding of changes in gene expression during ovarian tumorigenesis and the identification of specific tumor markers may lead to novel strategies for diagnosis and therapy for this disease. Using our serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) data, as well as public SAGE databases that contained a total of 137 SAGE libraries representing a wide variety of normal and neoplastic tissues, we identified five novel SAGE tags specifically expressed in ovarian cancer. Database analysis, cloning and, sequencing of the corresponding expressed sequence tags revealed details about these transcripts that we named human ovarian cancer-specific transcripts (HOSTs). HOST1 was found to be identical to the gene encoding ovarian marker CA125 (MUC16). HOST2 is a novel gene containing multiple copies of retroviral-related sequences without an obvious open reading frame. HOST3 encodes the tight-junction protein claudin-16 (CLDN16). HOST4 encodes a poorly characterized proteoglycan link protein (LP), and HOST5 codes for a type II sodium-dependent phosphate transporter (SLC34A2). Except for MUC16, these genes have not previously been shown to be expressed in ovarian or other cancers. Northern blot analysis confirmed that HOST genes are rarely expressed in normal tissues or nonovarian cancers, but are frequently expressed in ovarian cancer-derived cell lines and primary tumors. Moreover, HOST genes are upregulated in all four major subtypes of ovarian cancer compared to cultivated ovarian surface epithelial cells, as concluded by real-time reverse transcription (RT)-PCR using a panel of microdissected ovarian tumors. The sodium-dependent phosphate transporter (HOST5/SLC34A2) expression was associated with increased differentiation in ovarian serous tumors. While the roles of HOSTs in ovarian malignant transformation remain unclear, we propose that HOSTs may represent alternative targets for diagnosis and therapy and of this deadly disease.